Exercise and physical activity for older adults

Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise

Volumn 30, Issue 6, 1998, Pages 992-1008

  Mazzeo, Robert S ^a   Cavanagh, Peter ^a   Evans, William J ^a   Fiatarone, Maria ^a   Hagberg, James ^a   McAuley, Edward ^a   Startzell, Jill ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AGING; CARDIOVASCULAR FUNCTION; ENDURANCE; EXERCISE; FUNCTIONAL ASSESSMENT; HEALTH STATUS; PHYSICAL ACTIVITY; QUALITY OF LIFE; REVIEW; TRAINING;

EID: 0031745227     PISSN: 01959131     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00005768-199806000-00033     Document Type: Review

References (248)

1. ADES, P. and M. GRUNVALD. Cardiopulmonary exercise testing before and after conditioning in older cardiac patients. Am. Heart J. 69: 1442-1446, 1990.
2. ADES, P., J. HANSON, and J, GUNTHER. Exercise conditioning in the elderly coronary patient. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 35: 121-126, 1987.
3. ADES, P., M. WALDMANN, and D. POLK. Referral patterns and exercise response in the rehabilitation of coronary patients > 62 years. Am. J. Cardiol 69: 1442-1446, 1992.
4. ADES, P., M. WALDMANN, and E. POEHLMAN. Exercise conditioning in older coronary patients: submaximal lactate response and endurance capacity. Circulation 69: 273-278, 1988.
5. AGENCY FOR HEALTH CARE POLICY AND RESEARCH. Depression in primary care: detection and diagnosis, Vol. 1, Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office 93: 0551, 0-176 1993.
6. AMERICAN COLLEGE OF SPORTS MEDICINE. Guidelines for Exercise Testing and Prescription, 5th Ed. Baltimore: Williams and Wilkins, 1995, pp. 1-373.
7. ANIANSSON, A., G. GRIMBY, M. HEDBERG, and M. KROTKIEWSKI. Muscle morphology, enzyme activity and muscle strength in elderly men and women. Clin. Physiol. 1: 73-86, 1981.
8. ANIANSSON, A. and E. GUSTAFSSON. Physical training in elderly men with special reference to quadriceps muscle strength and morphology. Clin. Physiol. 1: 87-98, 1981.
9. BANDURA, A. Social Foundations of Thought and Action: A Social Cognitive Theory, Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 1986, pp. 1-617.
10. BANDURA, A. Self-Efficacy: The Exercise of Control, New York: W. H. Freeman and Company, 1997, pp. 1-601.
11. BASHORE, T. R. and P. H. GODDARD. Preservative and restorative effects of aerobic fitness on the age-related slowing of mental processing speed. In: Adult Information Processing: Limits on Loss, J. Cerella, J. Rybash, W. Hoyer, and M. L. Commons (Eds.). New York: Academic Press, 1993, pp. 205-227.
12. BASSEY, E. J., M. J. BENDALL, and M. PEARSON. Muscle strength in the triceps surae and objectively measured customary walking activity in men and women over 65 years of age. Clin. Sci. 74: 85-89, 1988.
13. BASSEY, E. J., M. A. FIATARONE, E. F. O'NEILL, M. KELLY, W. J. EVANS, and L. A. LIPSITZ. Leg extensor power and functional performance in very old men and women. Clin. Sci. 82: 321-327, 1992.
14. BAYLOR, A. M. and W. W. SPIRDUSO. Systematic aerobic exercise and components of reaction time in older women. J. Gerontol. 43: 121-126, 1988.
15. BELL, R. D. and T. B. HOSHIZAKI. Relationships of age and sex with range of motion of seventeen joint actions in humans. Can. J. Appl. Sport Sci. 6: 202-206, 1981.
16. BENNETT, J., M. A. CAKMACK, and V. J. GARDNER. The effect of a program of physical exercise on depression in older adults. Physiol. Educ. 39: 21-24, 1982.
17. BEVIER, W. C., R. A. WISWELL, G. PYKA, K. C. KOZAK, K. M. NEWHALL, and R. MARCUS. Relationship of body composition, muscle strength, and aerobic capacity to bone mineral density in older men and women. J. Bone Miner. Res. 4: 421-432, 1989.
18. BLANKFORT-DOYLE, W., H. WAXMAN, F. NASO, et al. An exercise program for nursing home residents. In: Aging and Motor Behavior, A. C. Ostrow (Ed.). Indianapolis: Brown and Benchmark, 1989: 201-206.
19. BLUMENTHAL, J. A., C. F. EMERY, D. J. MADDEN, L. K. GEORGE, R. E. COLEMAN, M. W. RIDDLE, D. C. MCKEE, J. REASONER, and R. S. WILLIAMS. Cardiovascular and behavioral effects of aerobic exercise training in healthy older men and women. J. Gerontol. 44: M147-M157, 1989.
20. BLUMENTHAL, J. A., and D. J. MADDEN. Effects of aerobic exercise training, age, and physical fitness on memory-search performance. Psychol. Aging 3: 280-285, 1988.
21. BLUMENTHAL, J. A., C. F. EMERY, D. J. MADDEN, S. SCHNIEBOLK, M. WALSH-RIDDLE, L. K. GEORGE, D. C. MCKEE, M. B. HIGGIN-BOTHAM, F. R. COBB, and R. E. COLEMAN. Long-term effects of exercise on psychological functioning in older men and women. J. Gerontol. Psychol. Sci. 46: P352-P361, 1991.
22. BORTZ, W. M. Disuse and aging. JAMA 248: 1203-1208, 1982.
23. BOUCHARD, C., R. J. SHEPHERD, and T. STEPHENS (EDS.). Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health. International Proceedings and Consensus Statement. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, pp 1-1055: 1994.
24. BRANDFONBRENER, M., M. LANDOWNE, and N. SHOCK. Changes in cardiac output with age. Circulation 12: 557-566, 1955.
25. BROWN, D. R. Physical activity, ageing, and psychological well-being. Can. J. Sports Sci. 17: 185-193, 1992.
26. BUNKER, V., M. LAWSON, M. STANSFIELD, and B. CLAYTON. Nitrogen balance studies in apparently healthy elderly people and those who are housebound. Br. J. Nutr. 57: 211-221, 1987.
27. BUTTERWORTH, D., D. NIEMAN, R. PARKINS, et al. Exercise training and nutrient intake in elderly women. J. Am. Diet Assoc. 93: 653-657, 1993.
28. CAMACHO, T. C., R. E. ROBERTS, N. B. LAZARUS, G. A. KAPLAN, and R. D. COHEN. Physical activity and depression: evidence from the Alameda County Study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 134: 220-230, 1991.
29. CAMPBELL, W. W., M. C. CRIM, G. E. DALLAL, V. R. YOUNG, and W. J. EVANS. Increased protein requirements in the elderly: new data and retrospective reassessments. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 60: 167-175, 1994.
30. CARL, C. A. The effects of an exercise program on self-care activities for the institutionalized elderly. J. Gerontol. 8: 282-285, 1982.
31. CARROLL, J., V. CONVERTINO, C. WOOD, J. GRAVES, D. LOWENTHAL, and M. POLLOCK. Effect of training on blood volume and plasma hormone concentrations in the elderly. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 27: 79-84, 1995.
32. CHANDLER, J. M. and E. C. HADLEY. Exercise to improve physiologic and functional performance in old age. Clin. Geriatr. Med. 12: 761-784, 1996.
33. CHODKO-ZAJKO, W. J. Physical fitness, cognitive performance, and aging. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23: 868-872, 1991.
34. CHODZKO-ZAJKO, W. J. and K. A. MOORE. Physical fitness and cognitive functioning in aging. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 22: 195-220, 1994.
35. CLARKSON-SMITH, L. and A. A. HARTLEY. Relationships between physical exercise and cognitive abilities in older adults. Psychol. Aging 4: 183-189, 1989.
36. CLARKSON-SMITH. L. and A. A. HARTLEY. Structural equation models of relationships between exercise and cognitive abilities. Psychol. Aging 5: 437-446, 1990.
37. COHN, S. H., D. VARTSKY, S. YASUMURA, A. SAVITSKY, I. ZANZI, A. VASWANI, and K. J. ELLIS. Compartmental body composition based on total-body potassium and calcium. Am. J. Physiol. 239: E524-E530, 1980.
38. CONONIE, C., A. GOLDBERG, E. ROGUS, and J. HAGBERG. Seven consecutive days of exercise lowers plasma insulin responses to an oral glucose challenge in sedentary 60-80 yr olds. J. Am. Geritar. Soc. 42: 394-398, 1994.
39. CRILLY, R. G., D. A. WILLEMS, K. J. TRENHOLM, K. C. HAYES, and L. F. DELAQUERRIERE-RICHARDSON. Effect of exercise on postural sway in the elderly. Gerontology 35: 137-143, 1989.
40. DANNESKOILD-SAMSOE, B., V. KOFOD, J. MUNTER, G. GRIMBY, and P. SCHNOHR. Muscle strength and functional capacity in 77-81 year old men and women. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 52: 123-135, 1984.
41. DAVY, K. and D. SEALS. Total blood volume in healthy young and older men. J. Appl. Physiol. 76: 2059-2062, 1994.
42. DEL REY, P. Effects of contextual interference on the memory of older females differing in levels of physical activity. Percept. Mot. Skills 55: 171-180, 1982.
43. DUNCAN, T. E. and E. MCAULEY. Social support and efficacy cognitions in exercise adherence: a latent growth curve analysis. J. Behav. Med. 16: 199-218, 1993.
44. DUNCAN, T. E., E. MCAULEY, M. STOOLMILLER, and S. C. DUNCAN. Serial fluctuations in exercise behavior as a function of social support and efficacy cognitions. J. Appl. Soc. Psychol. 23: 1498-1522, 1993.
45. DUNCAN, T. E. and M. STOOLMILLER. Modeling social and psychological determinants of exercise behaviors via structural equation systems. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 64: 1-16, 1993.
46. DUNN, A. L. and R. K. DISHMAN. Exercise and the neurobiology of depression. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 19: 41-98, 1991.
47. DUSTMAN, R. E., R. Y. EMMERSON, R. O. RUHLING, D. E. SHEARER, L. A. STEUNHAUS, S. C. JOHNSON, H. W. BONEKAT, and J. W. SHIGEOKA. Age and fitness effects on EEG, ERPs, visual sensitivity and cognition. Neurobiol. Aging 11: 193-200, 1990.
48. DUSTMAN, R. E., R. Y. EMMERSON, and D. E. SHEARER. Electro-physiology and aging: slowing, inhibition, and aerobic fitness. In: Cognitive and Behavioral Performance Factors in Atypical Aging, M. L. Howe, M. J. Stones, and C. J. Brainerd (Eds.). New York: Springer-Verlag. 1984, pp. 103-149.
49. DUSTMAN, R. E., R. EMMERSON, and D. SHEARER. Physical activity, age, and cognitive- neuropsychological function. J. Aging Phys. Act. 2: 143-181, 1994.
50. EHSANI, A., G. HEATH, J. HAGBERG, B. SOBEL, and J. HOLLOSZY. Effects of 12 months of intense exercise training on ischemic ST-segment depression in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 64: 1116-1124, 1981.
51. EHSANI, A., T. OGAWA, T. MILLER, R. SPINA, and S. JILKA. Exercise training improves left ventricular systolic function in older men. Circulation 83: 96-103, 1991.
52. EMERY, C. F. and M. GATZ. Psychological and cognitive effects of an exercise program for community-residing older adults. Gerontologist 30: 184-188, 1990.
53. ENGEL, G. L. The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science 196: 129-136, 1977.
54. ERA P. and E. HEIKKINEN. Postural sway during standing and unexpected disturbance of balance in random samples of men of different ages. J. Gerontol 40: 287-295, 1985.
55. EVANS, W. and W. CAMPBELL. Sarcopenia and age-related changes in body composition and functional capacity. J. Nutr. 123: 465-468, 1993.
56. EVANS, W., V. HUGHES, C. M. FERRARA, R. A. FIELDING, M. A. FIATARONE, E. C. FISHER, and D. ELAHI. Effects of training intensity on glucose homeostasis in glucose intolerant adults (Abstract). Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 23: S152, 1991.
57. EWART, C. K., K. J. STEWART, R. E. GILLILAN, and M. H. KELEMAN. Self-efficacy mediates strength gains during circuit weight training in men with coronary artery disease. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 18: 531-540, 1986.
58. EWART, C. K., K. J. STEWART, R. E. GILLILAN, M. H. KELEMAN, S. A. VALENTI, J. D. MANLEY, and M. D. KALEMAN. Usefulness of self-efficacy in predicting overexertion during programmed exercise in coronary artery disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 57: 557-561, 1986.
59. EWART, C. K., C. B. TAYLOR, L. B. REESE, and R. F. DEBUSK. Effects of early postmyocardial infarction exercise testing on self-perception and subsequent physical activity. Am. J. Cardiol. 51: 1076-1080, 1983.
60. FARMER, M. E., B. Z. LOCKE, E. K. MOSCICKI, A. L. DANNENBERG, D. B. LARSON, and L. S. RADLOFF. Physical activity and depressive symptoms: the NHANES I epidemiologic follow-up study. Am. J. Epidemiol. 128: 1340-1351, 1988.
61. FIATARONE, M. A. and W. J. EVANS. Exercise in the oldest old. Top. Geriatr. Rehabil. 5: 63-77, 1990.
62. FIATARONE, M. A. and W. J. EVANS. The etiology and reversibility of muscle dysfunction in the aged. J. Gerontol. 48(Special Issue): 77-83, 1993.
63. FIATARONE, M. A., E. C. MARKS. N. D. RYAN, C. N. MEREDITH, L. A. LIPSITZ, and W. J. EVANS. High-intensity strength training in nonagenarians: effects on skeletal muscle. JAMA. 263: 3029-3034, 1990.
64. FIATARONE, M. A., E. F. O'NEILL, N. D. RYAN, K. M. CLEMENTS, G. R. SOLARES, M. E. NELSON, S. B. ROBERTS, J. J. KEHAYIAS, L. A. LIPSITZ, and W. J. EVANS. Exercise training and nutritional supplementation for physical frailty in very elderly people. N. Engl. J. Med. 330: 1769-1775, 1994.
65. FISHER, N., D. PENDERGAST, and E. CALKINS. Muscle rehabilitation in impaired elderly nursing home residents. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 72: 181-185, 1991.
66. FLEG, J., F. O'CONNOR, G. GERSTENBLITH, L. BECKER, J. CLULOW, S. SCHULMAN, and E. LAKATTA. Impact of age on the cardiovascular response to dynamic upright exercise in healthy men and women. J. Appl. Physiol. 78: 890-900, 1995.
67. 2max. J. Appl. Physiol. 65: 1147-1151, 1988.
68. FOLKINS, C. H. and W. E. SIME. Physical fitness training and mental health. Am. Psychol. 36: 373-389, 1981.
69. FORMAN, D., W. MANNING, R. HAUSER, E. GERVINO, W. EVANS, and J. WEI. Enhanced left ventricular diastolic filling associated with long-term endurance training. J. Gerontol. 47: M56-M58, 1992.
70. FRIEDMAN, R. and R. TAPPEN. Effect of planned walking on communication in Alzheimer's disease. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 39: 650-654, 1991.
71. 2max in older men. J. Appl. Physiol. 68: 329-333, 1990.
72. FRONTERA, W. R., C. N. MEREDITH, K. P. O'REILLY, H. G. KNUTTGEN, and W. J. EVANS. Strength conditioning in older men; skeletal muscle hypertrophy and improved function. J. Appl. Physiol. 64: 1038-1044, 1988.
73. GILTLIN, L. N., M. P. LAWTON, L. A. WINDSOR-LANDSBERG, M. H. KLEBAN, L. P. SANDS, and J. POSNER. In search of psychological benefits. J. Aging Health 4: 174-192, 1992.
74. GOLDBERG, T. and S. CHAVIN. Preventive medicine and screening for older adults. J. Am Geriatr. Soc. 45: 344-354, 1997.
75. GREEY, C. W. A Study of Flexibility in Selected Joints of Adult Males Ages 18-72. Doctoral dissertation, University of Michigan, 1955.
76. GURALNIK, J., A. LACROIX, R. D. ABBOTT, et al. Maintaining mobility in late life: I - demographic characteristics and chronic conditions. Am. J. Epidemiol. 137: 845-857, 1993.
77. GUTIN, B. and M. J. KASPER. Can vigorous exercise play a role in osteoporosis prevention? a review. Osteoporos. Int. 2: 55-69, 1992.
78. GUTMAN, G. M., HERBERT, C. P., and S. R. BROWN. Feldenkrais versus conventional exercises for the elderly. J. Gerontol. 32: 562-572, 1977.
79. HAGBERG, J., S. BLAIR, A. EHSANI, N. GORDON, N. KAPLAN, C. TIPTON, and E. ZAMBRASKI. Position stand: physical activity, physical fitness, and hypertension. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 25: i-x, 1993.
80. HAGBERG, J. Exercise, fitness, and hypertension. In: Exercise, Fitness, and Health: A Consensus of Current Knowledge, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1990, pp. 455-466.
81. HAGBERGJ., A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. Effects of 12 months of intense exercise training on stroke volume in patients with coronary artery disease. Circulation 67: 1194-1199, 1983.
82. HAGBERGJ., J. GRAVES, M. LIMACHER, D. WOODS, C. CONONIE, S. LEGGETT, J. GRUBER, and M. POLLOCK. Cardiovascular responses of 70-79 year old men and women to exercise training. J. Appl. Physiol. 66: 2589-2594, 1989.
83. HAGBERGJ., S. MONTAIN, W. MARTIN, and A. EHSANI. Effect of exercise training on 60 to 69 year old persons with essential hypertension. Am. J. Cardiol. 64: 348-353, 1989.
84. HARRIES, U. J. and E. J. BASSEY. Torque-velocity relationships for the knee extensors in women in their 3rd and 7th decades. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 60: 187-190, 1990.
85. HARTZ, S. C. Nutrition in the Elderly: The Boston Nutritional Status Survey, S. C. Hartz, R. M. Russell, and I. H. Rosenberg (Eds.). London: Smith-Gordon, 1992, pp. 1-287.
86. HASSELKUS, B. R. and G. M. SHAMBES. Aging and postural sway in women. J. Gerontol. 30: 661-667, 1975.
87. HASSMENP., R. CECI, and L. BACKMAN. Exercise for older women: a training method and its influences on physical and cognitive performance. Eur. J. Appl. Physiol. 64: 460-466, 1992.
88. HAWKINSH. L., A. F. KRAMER, and D. CAPALDI. Aging, exercise, and attention. Psychol. Aging 7: 643-653, 1992.
89. HEATHG., J. HAGBERG, A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. A physiological comparison of young and older endurance athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 51: 634-640, 1981.
90. HELLEBRANDT, F. A. and G. L. BRAUN. The influence of sex and age on the postural sway of man. Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 24: 347-360, 1939.
91. HERSEYW., J. GRAVES, M. POLLOCK, R. GINGERICH, R. SHIREMAN, G. HEATH, F. SPIERTO, S. MCCOLE, and J. HAGBERG. Endurance exercise training improves body composition and plasma insulin responses in 70-79 yr old men and women. Metabolism 43: 847-854, 1994.
92. HICKEYM. L., S. V. OWEN, and R. D. FROMAN. Instrument development: cardiac diet and exercise self-efficacy. Nurs. Res. 41: 347-351, 1992.
93. HU, M-H. and M. H. WOOLLACOTT. Multisensory training of standing balance in older adults: L-postural stability and one-leg stance balance. J. Gerontol. 49: M52-M61, 1994.
94. Hu, M-H. and M. H. WOOLLACOTT. Multisensory training of standing balance in older adults: II - kinematic and electromyographic postural responses. J. Gerontol. 49: M62-M71, 1994.
95. HUBLEY-KOZEYC. L., J. C. WALL, and D. B. HOGAN. Effects of a general exercise program on passive hip, knee, and ankle range of motion of older women. Top. Geriatr. Rehabil. 10: 33-44, 1995.
96. IMAMURA K., H. ASHIDA, T. ISHIKAWA, and M. FUJU. Human major psoas muscle and sacrospinalis muscle in relation to age: a study by computed tomography. J. Gerontol. 38: 678-681, 1983.
97. ISMAIL, A. H. and A. M. EL-NAGGAR, Effect of exercise on cognitive processing in adult men. J. Hum. Ergol. 10: 83-91, 1981.
98. JARNLO, G. B. Hip fracture patients: background and function. Scand. J. Rehabil. Med. 24(Suppl): l-31, 1991.
99. JERVEY, A. A Study of Flexibility of Selected Joints in Specified Groups of Adult Females. Doctoral dissertation. University of Michigan. 1961.
100. JETTE, A. M. and L. G. BRANCH. The Framingham disability study: II - Physical disability among the aging. Am. J. Public Health 71: 1211-1216, 1981.
101. JIROVEC, M. The impact of daily exercise on the mobility, balance, and urine control of cognitively impaired nursing home residents. Int. J. Nurs. Stud. 28: 145-151, 1991.
102. JUDGEJ. O., LINDSEY, C., UNDERWOOD, M., and D. WINSEMIUS. Balance improvements in older women: effects of exercise training. Phys. Ther. 73: 254-265, 1993.
103. KAPLANR., A. REIS, L. PREWITT, and E. EAKIN. Self-efficacy expectations predict survival for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Health Psychol. 13: 366-368, 1994.
104. KAPLANR. M., C. J. ATKINS, and S. REINSCH. Specific efficacy expectation mediate exercise compliance in patients with COPD. Health Psychol. 3: 223-242, 1984.
105. KASCHF., J. BOYER, S. VAN CAMP, L. VERITY, and J. P. WALLACE. Effect of exercise on cardiovascular ageing. Age Ageing 22: 5-10, 1993.
106. KATZELL., E. BLEECKER, E. COLMAN, E. ROGUS, J. SORKIN, and A. GOLDBERG. Effects of weight loss vs. aerobic exercise training on risk factors for coronary disease in healthy, obese, middle-aged and older men. JAMA 274: 1915-1920, 1995.
107. KIRWANJ., J. KOHRT, D. WOJTA, and J. HOLLOSZY. Endurance exercise training reduces glucose-stimulated insulin levels in 60-to 70-year-old men and women. J. Gerontol. 48;M84-M90, 1993.
108. KOENIG, H. G. and D. G. BLAZER. Epidemiology of geriatric affective disorders. In: Clinics in Geriatric Medicine, G. S. Alexopoulos (Ed.). Philadelphia: Saunders, 1992, pp. 235-252.
109. KOHRTW., M. MALLEY, A. COGGAN, R. SPINA, T. OGAWA, A. EHSANI, R. BOUREY, W. MARTIN III, and J. HOLLOSZY. Effects of gender, age, and fitness level on response of VO2max to training in 60-71 yr olds. J. Appl. Physiol. 71: 2004-2011, 1991.
110. KOLTERMANO. G., J. INSEL, M. SAEKOW, and J. M. OLEFSKY. Mechanisms of insulin resistance in human obesity: evidence for receptor and postreceptor defects. J. Clin. Invest. 65: 1272-1284, 1980.
111. KUHLMAN, K. A. Cervical range of motion in the elderly. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 74: 1071-1079, 1993.
112. LACROIXA., S. LEVEILLE, and J. A. HECHT, et al. Does walking decrease the risk of cardiovascular disease, hospitalizations and death in older adults? J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 44: 1113-1220, 1996.
113. LARSSON, L. Histochemical characteristics of human skeletal muscle during aging. Acta. Physiol. Scand. 117: 469-471, 1983.
114. LARSSON, L. Morphological and functional characteristics of the aging skeletal muscle in man. Acta. Physiol. Scand. Suppl. 457(Suppl): 1-36, 1978.
115. LARSSON, L. Physical training effects on muscle morphology in sedentary males as different ages. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 14: 203-206, 1982.
116. LARSSONL. G., G. GRIMBY, and J. KARLSSON. Muscle strength and speed of movement in relation to age and muscle morphology. J. Appl. Physiol. 46: 451-456, 1979.
117. LAVIEC., R. MILANI, and A. LITTMAN. Benefits of cardiac rehabilitation and exercise training in secondary coronary prevention in the elderly. J. Am. Coll. Cardiol. 22: 678-683, 1993.
118. LESLIE, D. K. and G. A. FREKANY. Effects of an exercise program on selected flexibility measures of senior citizens. Gerontologist 4: 182-183, 1975.
119. LESSER, M. The effects of rhythmic exercise on the range of motion in older adults. Am. Correct. Ther. J. 32: 118-122, 1978.
120. LEVYW., M. CERQUEIRA, I. ABRASS, R. SCHWARTZ, and J. STRATTON. Endurance exercise training augments diaslolic filling at rest and during exercise in healthy young and older men. Circulation 88: 116-126, 1993.
121. LEXELLJ., K. HENRIKSSON-LARSEN, B. WIMBLOD, and M. SJOSTROM. Distribution of different fiber types in human skeletal muscles; effects of aging studied in whole muscle cross sections. Muscle Nerve 6: 588-595, 1983.
122. LICHTENSTEINM. J., S. L. SHIELDS, R. G. SHAVI, and C. BURGER. Exercise and balance in need women: a pilot controlled clinical trial. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 70: 138-143, 1989.
123. LINDEMUTH, G. and B. MOOSE. Improving cognitive abilities of elderly Alzheimer's disease patients with intense exercise therapy. Am. J. Alzhemier's Care Rel. Disord. Res. 5: 31-33, 1990.
124. LORD, S. R. and S. CASTELL. Physical activity program for older persons: effect on balance, strength, neuromuscular control, and reaction time. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 75: 648-652, 1994.
125. LORDS. R., D. G. LLOYD, M. NIRUI, J. RAYMOND, P. WILLIAMS, and R. A. STEWART. The effect of exercise on gait patterns in older women: a randomized controlled trial. J. Gerontol 51: M64-M70, 1996.
126. LORDS. R., J. A. WARD, and P. WILLIAMS. Exercise effect on dynamic stability in older women: a randomized controlled trial. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 77: 232-236, 1996.
127. LORDS. R., J. A. WARD, P. WILLIAMS, and M. STRUDWICK. The effect of a 12-month exercise trial on balance, strength, and falls in older women: a randomized controlled trial. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 43: 1198-1206, 1995.
128. LORDS. R., P. N. SAMBROOK, C. GIBLERT, P. J. KELLY, T. NGUYEN, and I. W. WEBSTER. Postural stability falls and fractures in the elderly: results from the Dubo Osteoporosis Epidemiology Society. Med. J. Aust. 160: 684-685, 1994.
129. MACDOUGALL, J. D. Adaptability of muscle to strength training-a cellular approach. In: Biochemistry of Exercise, Vol. 5, B. Saltin (Ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1986 pp. 501-513.
130. MACRAE, P. G., M. E. FELTNER, and S. REINSCH. A 1-year exercise program for older women: effects on falls, injuries, and physical performance. J. Aging Phys. Act. 2: 127-142, 1994.
131. MADDEN, D. J., J. A. BLUMENTHAL, P. A. ALLEN, and C. EMERY. Improving aerobic capacity in healthy older adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance. Psychol. Aging 4: 307-320, 1989.
132. MADDEN, D. J., J. A. BLUMENTHAL, and C. EMERY. Improving aerobic capacity in healthy adults does not necessarily lead to improved cognitive performance. Psychol. Aging 4: 307-320, 1986.
133. MADDOX, G. L. and D. O. CLARK. Trajectories of functional impairment in later life. J. Health Hum. Behav. 33: 114-125, 1992.
134. MARTINSEN, E. W. Benefits of exercise of the treatment of depression. Sports Med. 9: 380-389, 1990.
135. MCAULEY, E. Efficacy, attributional, and affective responses to exercise participation. J. Sport Exerc. Psychol. 13: 382-393, 1991.
136. MCAULEY, E. The role of efficacy cognitions in the prediction of exercise behavior in middle-aged adults. J. Behav. Med. 15: 65-88, 1992.
137. MCAULEY, E. Self-efficacy, physical activity, and aging. In: Activity and Aging, J. Kelly (Ed.). London: Newbury Park, 1993, pp. 187-205.
138. MCAULEY, E. Physical activity and psychosocial outcomes. In: Physical Activity, Fitness, and Health: The Consensus Knowledge, C. Bouchard, R. J. Shephard, and T. Stephens (Eds.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1994, pp. 551-568.
139. MCAULEY, E. and K. S. COURNEYA. Adherence to exercise and physical activity as health promoting behaviors: attitudinal and self-efficacy influences. Appl. Prev. Psychol. 2: 65-77, 1993.
140. MCAULEY, E., K. S. COURNEYA, and J. LETTUNICH. Effects of acute and long-term exercise on self-efficacy responses in sedentary, middle-aged males and females. Gerontology 31: 534-542, 1991.
141. MCAULEY, E., K. S. COURNEYA, D. L. RUDOLPH, and C. L. Lox. Enhancing exercise adherence in middle-aged males and females. Prev. Med. 23: 498-506, 1994.
142. MCAULEY, E., C. Lox, and T. E. DUNCAN. Long-term maintenance of exercise, self-efficacy, and physiological change in older adults. J. Gerontol 48: P218-P224, 1993.
143. MCAULEY, E. and D. RUDOLPH. Physical activity, aging, and psychological well-being. J. Aging Physiol. Activ. 3: 67-96, 1995.
144. MCAULEY, E., S. SHAFFER, and D. RUDOLPH. Self-efficacy and affective responses to exercise testing in older males. Int. J. Aging Hum. Dev. 41: 13-27, 1995.
145. MCCOLE, S., M. BROWN, G. MOORE, J. ZMUDA, J. CWYNAR, and J. HAGBERG. Maximal exercise cardiovascular hemodynamics in postmenopausal women are independent of hormone replacement therapy (Abstract). Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 29: 811, 1997.
146. MCGANDY, R. B., C. H. BARROWS, A. SPANIAS, A. MEREDITH, J. L. STONE, and A. H. NORRIS. Nutrient intake and energy expenditure in men of different ages. J. Gerontol. 21: 581-587, 1966.
147. MCMURDO ME and L. M. RENNIE. Improvements in quadriceps strength with regular seated exercise in the institutionalized elderly. Arch. Phys. Med. Rehabil. 75: 600-603, 1994.
148. MCNEIL, J. K., E. M. LEBLANC, and M. JOYNER. The effect of exercise on depressive symptoms in the moderately depressed elderly. Psychol. Aging 6: 487-488, 1991.
149. MENDES DE LEON, C. F., T. E. SEEMAN, D. I. BAKER, E. D. RICHARDSON, and M. E. TINETTI. Self- efficacy, physical decline. and change in functioning in community-living elders: a prospective study. J. Gerontol. B. Psychol Sci. Soc. Sci. 51: S183-S190, 1996.
150. MEREDITH, C. N., W. R. FRONTERA, and W. J. EVANS. Body composition in elderly men: effect of dietary modification during strength training. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 40: 155-162, 1992.
151. MIHALKO, S. L., E. MCAULEY, and S. M. BANE, Self-efficacy and affective responses to acute exercise in middle-aged adults. J. Soc. Behav. Personal. 11: 375-385, 1996.
152. MILLER, J. P., R. E. PRATLEY, A. P. GOLDBERG. P. GORDON, M. RUBIN, M. S. TREUTH, A. S. RYAN, and B. F. HURLEY. Strength training increases insulin action in healthy 50- to 65-yr-old men. J. Appl. Physiol. 77: 1122-1127, 1994.
153. MILLER, T., S. GROSSMAN, K. SCHECTMAN, D. BIELLO, P. LUDBROOK, and A. EHSANI. Left ventricular diastolic filling and its association with age. Am. J. Cardiol. 58: 531-535, 1986.
154. MIROWSKY, J. Age and the sense of control. Soc. Psychol Q. 58: 31-43, 1995.
155. MOBILY, K. E., L. M. RUBENSTEIN, J. H. LEMKE, M. W. O'HARA, and R. B. WALLACE. Walking and depression in a cohort of older adults: the Iowa 65+ rural health study. J. Aging Physiol. Activ. 4: 119-135, 1996.
156. MOLLOY, D., L. D. RICHARDSON, and R. G. CRILLY. The effects of a three-month exercise programme on neuropsychological function in elderly institutionalized women: a randomized controlled trial. Age Ageing 17: 303-310, 1988.
157. MOREY, M. C., P. A. COWPER, J. R. FEUSSNER, R. C. DIPASQUALE, G. M. CROWLEY, and R. J. SULLIVAN, JR. Two-year trends in physical performance following supervised exercise among community-dwelling old veterans. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 38: 549-554, 1991.
158. MORLEY, J. Anorexia in older persons: epidemiology and optimal treatment. Drugs Aging 8: 134-155, 1996.
159. MULROW, C., M. GERETY, D. KANTEN, et al. A randomized trial of physical rehabilitation for very frail nursing home residents. JAMA 271: 519-524, 1994.
160. MUNNS, K. Effects of exercise on the range of joint motion in elderly subjects. In: Exercise and Aging: The Scientific Basis. E. L. Smith, and R. C. Serfass, (Eds.). Short Hills, NJ: Enslow, 1981, pp. 1-191.
161. MURRAY, M. P., E. H. DUTHIE, S. T. GAMBERT, S. B. SEPIC, and L. A. MOLLINGER. Age-related differences in knee muscle strength in normal women. J. Gerontol. 40: 275-280, 1985.
162. NASO, F., E GARNER, W. BLANDFORT-DOYLE, et al. Endurance training in the elderly nursing home patient. Arch. Physiol. Med. Rehabil. 71: 241-243, 1990.
163. NELSON, M. E., F. A. DILMANIAN, G. E. DALLAL, and W. J. EVANS. A one-year walking program and increased dietary calcium in postmenopausal women: effects on bone. Am. J. Clin. Nutr. 53: 1304-1311, 1991.
164. NELSON, M. E., M. A. FIATARONE, C. M. MORGANTI, I. TRICE, R. A. GREENBERG, and W. J. EVANS. Effects of high-intensity strength training on multiple risk factors for osteoporotic fractures. JAMA 272: 1909-1914, 1994.
165. NELSON, M., J. LAYNE, A. NUERNBERGER, et al. Home-based exercise training in the frail elderly: effects on physical performance (Abstract). Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 29: S110, 1997.
166. NIGG, B. M., V. FISHER, T. L. ALLINGER, J. R. RONSKY, and J. R. ENGSBERG. Range of motion of the foot as a function of age. Foot Ankle 13: 336-343, 1992.
167. NORTH, T. C., P. MCCULLAGH, and Z. V. TRAN. Effect of exercise on depression. Exerc. Sport Sci. Rev. 18: 379-415, 1990.
168. O'CONNOR, P. J., L. E. AENCHENBACHER, and R. K. DISHMAN. Physical activity and depression in the elderly. J. Aging Physiol. Activ. 1: 34-58, 1993.
169. ODDIS, C. New perspectives on osteoarthritis. Am. J. Med. 100: 10S-15S, 1996.
170. OGAWA, T., R. SPINA, W. MARTIN III, W. KOHRT, K. SCHECHTMAN, J. HOLLOSZY, and A. EHSANI. Effects of aging, sex and physical training on cardiovascular responses to exercise. Circulation 86: 494-503, 1992.
171. ORY, M., K. SCHECHTMAN, J. P. MILLER, et al. Frailty and injuries in later life: the FICSIT trials. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 41: 283-296, 1993.
172. OVERSTALL, P. W., A. N. EXTON-SMITH, F. J. IMMS, and A. L. JOHNSON. Falls in elderly related to postural imbalance. BMJ 1: 261-264, 1977.
173. PANTON, L. B., J. E. GRAVES, M. L. POLLOCK, J. M. HAGBERT, and W. CHEN. Effect of aerobic resistance training on fractionated reaction time and speed of movement. J. Gerontol 45: M26-M31, 1990.
174. PATE, R., M. PRATT, S. N. BLAIR, et al. Physical activity and public health: a recommendation from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine. JAMA 273: 402-407, 1995.
175. PATLA, A. E., J. S. FRANK, and D. A. WINTER. Assessment of balance control in the elderly: major issues. Phys. Ther. Can. 42: 89-97, 1990.
176. PERKINS, K., S. RAPP, C. R. CARLSON, AND C. E. WALLACE. Behavioral interventions to increase exercise. Gerontologist 26: 479-481, 1986.
177. PERRI, S. and D. TEMPLAR. The effects of an aerobic exercise program on psychological variables in older adults. Int. J. Hum. Dev. 20: 162-172, 1985.
178. PIERCE, T. W., D. J. MADDEN, W. C. SIEGEL, and J. A. BLUMENTHAL. Effects of aerobic exercise on cognitive and psychosocial functioning in patients with mild hypertension. Health Psychol. 12: 286-291, 1993.
179. PLANTE, T. E. and J. RODIN. Physical fitness and enhanced psychological health. Curr. Psychol. Res. Rev. 9: 3-24, 1990.
180. POLLOCK, M., L. MENGELKOCH, J. GRAVES, D. LOWENTHAL, M. LIMACHER, C. FOSTER, and J. WILMORE. Twenty-year follow-up of aerobic power and body composition of older track athletes. J. Appl. Physiol. 82: 1508-1516, 1997.
181. PORT, S., F. COBB, R. COLEMAN, and R. JONES. The effect of age on left ventricular function at rest and during exercise. N. Engl. J. Med. 303: 1133-1137, 1980.
182. PROVINCE, M. A., E. C. HADLEY, M. C. HORNBROOK, L. A. LIPSITZ, J. P. MILLER, C. D. MULROW, M. G. ORY, R. W. SATTIN, M. E. TINETTI, and S. L. WOLF. The effects of exercise on falls in elderly patients: a preplanned meta-analysis of the FICSIT Trials Frailty and Injuries: Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques. JAMA 273: 1341-1347, 1995.
183. PU, C., M. JOHNSON, D. FORMAN, L. PIAZZA, and M. FIATARONE. Performanced-based functional changes after strength training in elderly women with heart failure. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. (in press).
184. PYYKKÖ, I., H. AALTO, M. HYTONEN, J. STARCK, P. JANTTI, and H. RAMSAY. Effect of age on postural control. In: Posture and Gait: Development, Adaptation and Modulation. B. Amblard, A. Berthoz, and F. Clarac (Eds.). New York: Elsevier Science, 1988, pp. 95-104.
185. RAVUSSIN, E., S. LILLIOJA, T. E. ANDERSON, L. CRISTIN, and C. BOGARDUS. Determinants of 24-hour energy expenditure in man. J. Clin. Invest. 78: 1568-1578, 1986.
186. REJESKI, W. J., T. CRAVEN, W. H. ETIINGER JR., M. MCFARLANE, and S. SHUMAKER. Self-efficacy and pain in disability with osteoarthritis of the knee. J. Gerontol. 51: P24-P29, 1996.
187. RIKLI, R. E. and S. BUSCH. Motor performance of women as a function of age and physical activity level. J. Gerontol. 41: 645-649, 1986.
188. RIKLI, R. E. and D. J. EDWARDS. Effects of a three-year exercise program on motor function and cognitive processing speed in older women. Res. Q. Exerc. Sport 62: 61-67, 1991.
189. ROACH, K. E. and T. P. MILES. Normal hip and knee active range of motion: the relationship to age. Phys. Ther. 70: 656-665. 1991.
190. ROBERTS, S. B., V. R. YOUNG, P. FUSS, M. B. HEYMAN, M. A. FIATARONE, G. E. DALLAL, J. CORTIELLA, and W. J. EVANS. What are the dietary energy needs of adults? Int. J. Obes. 16: 969-976, 1992.
191. RODEHEFFER, R., G. GERSTENBLITH, L. BECKER, J. FLEG, M. WEIS- FELDT, and E. LAKATTA. Exercise cardiac output is maintained with advancing age in healthy human subjects: cardiac dilatation and increased stroke volume compensate for a diminished heart rate. Circulation 69: 203-213, 1984.
192. RODIN, J. Aging and health: effects of the sense of control. Science 233: 1271-1276, 1986.
193. 2max with aging in master athletes and sedentary men. J. Appl. Physiol. 68: 2195-2199, 1990.
194. ROGERS, M., C. YAMAMOTO, D. KING, J. HAGBERG, A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. Improvement in glucose tolerance after 1 wk of exercise in patients with NIDDM. Diabetes Care 11: 613-618, 1988.
195. SALLIS, J. F., M. F. HOVELL, C. R. HOFSTETTER, et al. A multivariate study of determinants of vigorous exercise in a community sample. Prev. Med. 18: 20-34, 1989.
196. SAUVAGE L. R., B. M. MYKELBUST, J. CROW-PAN, et al. A clinical trial of strengthening and aerobic exercise to improve gait and balance in elderly male nursing home residents. J. Phys. Med. Rehabil 71: 333-342, 1992.
197. SCHNELLE, J., P. MACRAE, and J. G. OUSLANDER, et al. Functional Incidental Training, mobility performance, and incontinence care with nursing home residents. J. Am. Geriatric. Soc. 43: 1356-1362, 1995.
198. SCHULMAN, S., J. FLEG, A. GOLDBERG, J. BUSBY-WHITEHEAD, J. HAGBERG, F. O'CONNOR, G. GERSTENBLITH, L. BECKER, L. KATZEL, L. LAKATTA, and E. LAKATTA. Continuum of cardiovascular performance across a broad range of fitness levels in healthy older men. Circulation 94: 359-367, 1994.
199. SCHWARTZ, R., W. SHUMAN, V. LARSON, K. CAIN, G. FELLINGHAM, J. BEARD, S. KAHN, J. STRATTON, M. CERQUEIRA, and I. ABRASS. The effect of intensive endurance exercise training on body fat distribution in young and older men. Metabolism 40: 545-551, 1991.
200. SEALS, D., W. ALLEN, B. HURLEY, G. DALSKY, A. EHSANI, and J. HAGBERG. Elevated high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in older endurance athletes. Am. J. Cardiol. 54: 390-393, 1984.
201. SEALS, D., J. HAGBERG, W. ALLEN, B. HURLEY, G. DALSKY, A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. Glucose tolerance in young and older athletes and sedentary men. J. Appl. Physiol. 56: 1521-1525, 1984.
202. SEALS, D., J. HAGBERG, B. HURLEY, A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. Endurance training in older men and women: I - cardiovascular responses to exercise. J. Appl. Physiol. 57: 1024-1029, 1984.
203. SEALS, D., J. HAGBERG, B. HURLEY, A. EHSANI, and J. HOLLOSZY. Effects of endurance training on glucose tolerance and plasma lipid levels in older men and women. J. Am. Med. Assoc. 252: 645-649, 1984.
204. SEALS, D., J. HAGBERG, R. SPINA, M. ROGERS, K. SCHECHTMAN, and A. EHSANI. Enhanced left ventricular performance in endurance trained older men. Circulation 89: 198-205, 1994.
205. SEALS, D. and M. REILING. Effect of regular exercise on 24-hr arterial pressure in older hypertensive humans. Hypertension 18: 583-592, 1991.
206. SEPIC, S. B., M. P. MURRAY, L. A. MOLLINGER, G. B. SPURR, and G. M. GARDNER. Strength and range of motion in the ankle in two age groups of men and women. Am. J. Physiol. Med. 65: 75-84, 1986.
207. SHAY, K. A. and D. L. ROTH. Association between aerobic fitness and visuospatial performance in healthy older adults. Psychol. Aging 7: 15-24, 1992.
208. SHELDON, J. H. The effect of age on the control of sway. Gerontol. Clin. 5: 129-138, 1963.
209. SINAKI, M., M. C. MCPHEE, and S. F. HODGSON. Relationship between bone mineral density of spine and strength of back extensors in healthy postmenopausal women. Mayo Clin. Proc. 61: 116-122, 1986.
210. SINGH, N. A., K. M. CLEMENTS, and M. A. FIATORSE. A randomised controlled trial of the effect of exercise on sleep. Sleep 20: 95-101, 1997.
211. SINGH, N. A., K. M. CLEMENTS, and M. A. FIATORNE. A randomised controlled trial of progressive resistance training in depressed elders. J. Gerontol. 52A: M27-M35, 1997.
212. SMITH, E. L. and R. C. SURPASS (EDS.) Exercise and Aging: The Scientific Basis. Short Hills, NJ: Enslow Publishers, 1981, pp. 1-191.
213. SMITH JR., E. L., W. REDDAN, and P. E. SMITH. Physical activity and calcium modalities for bone mineral increase in aged women. Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 13: 60-64, 1981.
214. SNOW-HARTER, C., M. BOUXSEIN, B. LEWIS, S. CHARETTE, P. WEINSTEIN, and R. MARCUS. Muscle strength as a predictor of bone mineral density in young women. J. Bone Miner. Res. 5: 589-595, 1990.
215. SPINA, R., T. MILLER, W. BOGENHAGEN, K. SCHECHTMAN, and A. EHSANI. Gender-related differences in left ventricular filling dynamics in older subjects after endurance exercise training. J. Gerontol. 51: B232-B237, 1996.
216. SPINA, R., T. OGAWA, W. KOHRT, W. MARTIN III. J. HOLLOSZY, and A. EHSANI. Differences in cardiovascular adaptations to endurance exercise training between older men and women. J. Appl. Physiol. 75: 849-855, 1993.
217. SPINA, R., T. OGAWA, T. MILLER. W. KOHRT, and A. EHSANI. Effect of exercise training on left ventricular performance in older women free of cardiopulmonary disease. Am. J. Cardiol. 71: 99-104, 1993.
218. SPIRDUSO, W. W. Reaction and movement time as a function of age and physical activity level. J. Gerontol, 43: 18-23, 1975.
219. SPIRDUSO, W. W. Physical Dimensions of Aging, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics, 1995.
220. SPIRDUSO, W. W. and P. CLIFFORD. Replication of age and physical activity effects on reaction time movement time. J. Gerontol. 33: 23-30, 1978.
221. STAMFORD, B. Effects of chronic institutionalization on the physical working capacity and trainability of geriatric men. J. Gerontol. 28: 441-446, 1973.
222. STEPHENS, T. Physical activity and mental health in the United States and Canada: evidence from four population surveys. Prev. Med. 17: 35-47, 1988.
223. STEVENSON, E., K. DAVY, and D. SEALS. Hemostatic, metabolic, and androgenic risk factors for coronary heart disease in physically active and less active postmenopausal women. Arterioscler. Thromb. 15: 669-677, 1995.
224. STONES, M. and A. KOZMA. Physical activity, age, and cognitive/motor performance. In: Cognitive Development in Adulthood; Progress in Cognitive Development Research. M.L. Howe and C.J. Brainerd (Eds.). New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988, pp. 273-321.
225. STRATTON, J., W. LEVY, M. CERQUEIRA, R. SCHWARTZ, and I. ABRASS. Cardiovascular responses to exercise effects of aging and exercise training in healthy men. Circulation 89: 1648-1655, 1994.
226. TALBOT. H. M., E. MCAULEY, J. A. WOODS, and M. A. CEDDIA. Self-efficacy and cortisol response to maximal exercise in older adults (Absract). Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 29: S119, 1997.
227. TAYLOR, C. B., A. BANDURA, C. K. EWART, N. H. MILLER, and R. F. DEBUSK. Exercise testing to enhance wives' confidence in their husbands' cardiac capability soon after acute myocardial infarction. Am. J. Cardiol. 55: 635-638, 1985.
228. TINETTI, M. E. Prevention of falls and fall injuries in elderly persons: a research agenda. Prev. Med. 23: 756-762, 1994.
229. TINETTI, M. E., D. I. BAKER, G. MCAVAY, E. B. CLAUS, P. GARRETT, M. GOTTSCHALK, M. L. KOCH, K. TRAINOR, and R. I. HORWITZ. A multifactorial intervention to reduce the risk of falling among elderly people living in the community. N. Engl. J. Med. 331: 821-827, 1994.
230. TINETTI, M. E., DOUCETTE, J. T., and E. B. CLAUS. The contribution of predisposing and situational risk factors to serious fall injuries. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 43: 1207-1213, 1995.
231. TINETTI, M. E., J. DOUCETTE, E. CLAUS, and R. MAROTTOLI. Risk factors for serious injury during falls by older persons in the community. J. Am Geriatr. Soc. 43: 1214-1221, 1995.
232. TINETTI, M. E., C. F. MENDES DE LEON, J. T. DOUCETTE, and D. I. BAKER. Fear of falling and fall-related efficacy in relationship to functioning among community-living elders. J. Gerontol. 49: M140-M147, 1994.
233. TINETTI, M. E., M. SPEECHLEY, and S. F. GINTER. Risk factors for falls among elderly persons living in the community. N. Engl. J. Med. 319: 1701-1707, 1988.
234. TOMPOROWSKI, P. D. The effects of physical and mental training on the mental abilities of older adults. J. Aging Physiol. Act. 5: 9-26, 1997.
235. TOMPOROWSKI, P. D. and N. R. ELLIS. Effects of exercise on cognitive processes: a review. Psychol. Bull. 99: 338-346, 1986.
236. TONINO, R. Effect of physical training on the insulin resistance of aging. Am. J. Physiol. 256: E352-E356, 1989.
237. TOSHIMA, M. T., R. M. KAPLAN, and A. L. RIES. Experimental evaluation of rehabilitation in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: short-term effects on exercise endurance and health status. Health Psychol. 9: 237-252, 1990.
238. TZANKOFF, S. P. and A. H. NORRIS. Longitudinal changes in basal metabolic rate in man. J. Appl. Physiol. 33: 536-539, 1978.
239. VAITKEVICIUS, P., J. FLEG, J. ENGEL, F. O'CONNOR, J. WRIGHT, L. LAKATTA, F. YIN, and E. LAKATTA. Effects of age and aerobic capacity on arterial stiffness in healthy adults. Circulation 88: 1456-1462, 1993.
240. WALKER, J. M., D. SUE, N. MILES-ELKOUSY, G. FORD, and H. TREVELYAN. Active mobility of the extremities in older subjects. Phys. Ther. 64: 919-923, 1994.
241. WALLACE J. and M. W. O'HARA. Increases in depressive symptomatology in the rural elderly: results from a cross-sectional and longitudinal study. J. Abnorm. Psychol 101: 398-404, 1992.
242. FAO/WHO/UNU. Report of a joint FAO/WHO/UNU Expert Consultation: energy and protein requirements. World Health Organ Tech. Rep. Ser. 724: 1-206, 1985.
243. WILLIAMS, M., C. MARESH, and D. ESTERBROOKS. Early exercise training in patients older than age 65 years compared with that in younger patients after acute myocardial infarction or coronary artery bypass grafting. Am. J. Cardiol. 55: 263-269, 1985.
244. WOLF, S. L., H. X. BARNHART, N. G. KUTNER, E. MCNEELY, C. COOGLER, and T. XU. Reducing frailty and falls in older persons: an investigation of Tai Chi and computerized balance training Atlanta FICSIT Group: Frailty and Injuries - Cooperative Studies of Intervention Techniques. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 44: 489-497, 1996.
245. WOLFSON, L., R. WHIPPLE, C. DERBY, J, JUDGE, M. KING, P. AMERMAN, J. SCHMIDT, and D. SMYERS. Balance and strength training in older adults: intervention gains and tai chi maintenance. J. Am. Geriatr. Soc. 44: 498-506, 1996.
246. WOLINSKY, F. D. and T. E. STUMP. Age and the sense of control among older adults. J. Gerontol. 51: 8217-8220, 1996.
247. WOOLLACOTT, M. H. and A. SHUMWAY-COOK. Changes in posture control across the life span: a systems approach. Phys. Ther. 70: 799-807, 1990.
248. YESAVAGE, J. A. The use of self-rating scales in the elderly. In: Handbook for Clinical Memory Assessment of Older Adults, L.W. Poon (Ed.). Washington: American Psychological Association, 1986, pp. 213-217.