Patient dosimetry for X rays used in medical imaging

Journal of the ICRU

Volumn 5, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 1-113

  Zoetelief, J ^a   Dance, D R ^b   Drexler, G ^c,d   Jarvinen H ^e   Rosenstein, M ^f   Allisy Roberts, P ^g   Bosmans, H ^h   Moretti, C J ⁱ   Van Dam, J ^h   Vano E ^j   Wall, B F ^k   Wambersie, André ^f   DeLuca, Paul M ^f  

^a DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY   (Netherlands)

^b INSTITUTE OF CANCER RESEARCH   (United Kingdom)

^c INSTITUTE OF EPIDEMIOLOGY   (Germany)

^d STATE UNIVERSITY OF RIO DE JANEIRO   (Brazil)

^e STUK RADIATION AND NUCLEAR SAFETY AUTHORITY   (Finland)

^f Bureau International des Poids et Mesures ^*

^g PAVILLON DE BRETEUIL   (France)

^h UNIVERSITY HOSPITALS LEUVEN   (Belgium)

ⁱ NATIONAL PHYSICAL LABORATORY   (United Kingdom)

^j UNIVERSIDAD COMPLUTENSE DE MADRID   (Spain)

^k PUBLIC HEALTH ENGLAND   (United Kingdom)

more..

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

CARCINOGENESIS; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC IMAGING; DOSIMETRY; FILM DOSIMETER; GENETIC RISK; IMAGE QUALITY; MENTAL DEVELOPMENT; MONTE CARLO METHOD; PHANTOM; RADIATION DOSE; RADIATION EXPOSURE; RADIATION HAZARD; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; X RAY;

EID: 33645465157     PISSN: 14736691     EISSN: 17423422     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1093/jicru/ndi016     Document Type: Review

References (280)

1. AAPM. (1992) American Association of Physicists in Medicine. Recommendations on Performance Characteristics of Diagnostic Exposure Meters. AAPM Report No 35 (New York: American Institute of Physics)
2. (Also published in Med. Phys. (1992) 19, 231-241).
3. ACR. (1992) American College of Radiology. Mammography Quality Control (Merrifield, VA: American College of Radiology).
4. Adrian Committee. (1960) Radiological Hazards to Patients. Second Report to the Committee (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
5. Allisy, A. (1995) 'An early proposal for the measurement of Röntgen rays (1896-1897).' ICRU News 1, 5-8.
6. Alm Carlsson, G. and Dance, D. R. (1992) 'Breast absorbed doses in mammography: evaluation of experimental and theoretical approaches.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 43, 197-200.
7. Andersen, L. W. and Rosenstein, M. (1985) Computer Program for Absorbed Dose to the Breasts in Mammography. HHS Publication FDA 85-8243 (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
8. Arai, T., Nakano, T., Fukuhisa, K., Tsunematsu, R., Masubuchi, K., Yamauchi, K., Hamada, T., Fukuda, T., Noguchi, H. and Murata, M. (1991) 'Second cancer after radiation therapy for cancer of the uterine cervix.' Cancer 67, 398-405.
9. Arnal, M. L. and Pychlau, H. (1961) 'Die Strahlenbelastung des Patienten bei röntgendiagnostischen Untersuchungen.' Fortschr. Geb. Röntgenstr. 95, 323-335.
10. Baorong, Y., Kramer, H. M., Selbach, H.-J. and Lange, B. (2000) 'Experimental determination of practical peak voltage.' Br. J. Radiol. 73, 641-649.
11. Beck, T. J. and Rosenstein, M. (1979) Quantification of Current Practice in Pediatric Röntgenography for Organ Dose Calculations. HEW Publication FDA 79-8078 (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
12. Bednarek, D. R. and Rudin, S. (2000) 'Comparison of two dose-area-product ionization chambers with different conductive surface coating for over-table and under-table tube configurations.' Health Phys. 78, 316-321.
13. Berger, M. J. and Hubbell, J. H. (1987) XCOM: Photon Cross Sections on a Personal Computer (Gaithersburg, MD: National Bureau of Standards).
14. BIPM, IEC, ISO and OIML. (1984) International Bureau of Weights and Measures, International Electrotechnical Commission, International Organization for Standardization and International Organization of Legal Metrology. International Vocabulary of Basic and General Terms in Metrology (Geneva: International Organization for Standardization).
15. Birch, R. and Marshall, M. (1979) 'Computation of bremsstrahlung X-ray spectra and comparison with spectra measured with a Ge (Li) detector.' Phys. Med. Biol. 24, 505-517.
16. Birch, R., Marshall, M. and Ardran, G. M. (1979) Catalogue of Spectral Data of Diagnostic X Rays. Hospital Physicists Association, SRS-30 (York: Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine).
17. BJR. (1983) British Journal of Radiology. 'Central axis depth dose data for use in radiotherapy.' Br. J. Radiol. Supplement 17.
18. Boag, J. W. (1987) Ionization chambers. In: The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation, vol. II, Kase, K. R., Bjärngard, B. G. and Attix, F. H., Eds. (Orlando: Academic Press) pp. 169-243.
19. Boice, J. D. Jr, Day, N. E., Andertsen, A., Brinton, L. A., Brown, R., Choi, N. W., Clarke, E. A., Coleman, M. P., Curtis, R. E., Flannery, J. T., Hakama, M., Hakulinen, T., Howe, G. R., Jensen, O. M., Kleinerman, R. A., Magnin, D., Magnus, K., Makela, K., Malker, B., Miller, A. H., Nelson, N., Patterson, C. C., Pettersson, F., Pompekirn, V., Primiczakelj, M., Prior, P., Ravnihar, B., Skeet, R. G., Skjerven, J. E., Smith, P. G., Sok, M., Spengler, R. F., Storm, H. H., Stovall, M., Tomkins, G. W. O. and Wall, C. (1985) 'Second cancers following radiation treatment for cervical cancers: An international collaboration among cancer registries.' J. Natl Cancer Inst. 74, 955-975.
20. Boice J. D. Jr, Engholm, G., Kleinerman, R., Blettner, M., Stovall, M., Lisco, H., Moloney, W. C., Austin, D. F., Bosch, A., Cookfair, D. L., Krementz, E. T., Latourette, H. B., Merrill, J. A., Peters, L. J., Schulz, M. D., Storm, H. H., Bjorkholm, E., Pettersson, F., Bell, C. M. I., Coleman, M. P., Fraser, P., Neal, F. E., Prior, P., Choi, N. W., Hislop, T. G., Koch, M., Kreiger, N., Robb, D., Robson, D., Thomson, D. H., Lochmuller, H., Vonfournier, D., Frischkorn, R., Kjorstad, K. E., Rimpela, A., Pejovic, M. H., Kirn, V. P., Stankusova, H., Berrino, F., Sigurdsson, K., Hutchison, G. B. and Macmahon, B. (1988) 'Radiation se and second cancer risk in patient treated for cancer of the cervix.' Radiat. Res. 116, 3-55.
21. Bos, A. J. J., Piters, T. M., Ros, J. M. G. and Delgado, A. (1993) 'An intercomparison of glow curve analysis computer programs 1. Synthetic glow curves.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 47, 473-477.
22. Bos, A. J. J., Piters, T. M., Ros, J. M. G. and Delgado, A. (1994) 'An intercomparison of glow curve analysis computer programs 2. Measured glow curves.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 51, 257-264.
23. Braun, R., Hase, H. and Küstner, H. (1928) 'Über die in der Diagnostik verabfolgten Dosen in R-Einheiten.' Fortschr. D. Röntgenstr. 38, 385-398.
24. Brenner, D. J. and Amols, H. I. (1989) 'Enhanced risk from low-energy screen-film mammography X-rays.' Br. J. Radiol. 62, 910-914.
25. Brenner, D. J., Doll, R., Goodhead, D. T., Hall, E. J., Land, C. E., Little, J. B., Lubin, J. H., Preston, D. L., Puskin, J. S., Ron, E., Sachs, R. K., Sametl, J. M., Setlow, R. B. and Zaider, M. (2003) 'Cancer risk attributable to low doses of ionizing radiation; assessing what we really know.' Proc. Natl Acad. Sci USA 100, 13761-13766.
26. Burkhardt, R. (1984) Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends (NEXT): Eight Years of Data (1974-1981) (Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service).
27. Cameron, J. R. (1971) 'A proposed unit for patient radiation exposure from diagnostic x-rays.' Health Phys. 21, 879-880.
28. Carlsson, C. (1963) 'Determination of integral absorbed dose from exposure measurements.' Acta Radiol. Ther. Phys. Biol. 3, 384-408.
29. Carlsson, C. A. (1993) 'Differences in reported backscatter factors for low-energy x rays: a literature study.' Phys. Med. Biol. 38, 521-531.
30. Carlsson, C. A. and Alm Carlsson, G., (1990) Dosimetry in diagnostic radiology and computed tomography. In: The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation, vol. III, Kase, K. R., Bjärngard, B. E., Attix, F. H., Eds. (Orlando: Academic Press) pp. 163-257.
31. CEC. (1990) Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images, 2nd edition. Working Document XII/173/90 (Brussels: Commission of the European Communities).
32. Chan, H.-P. and Doi, K. (1981) 'Monte Carlo simulation studies of backscatter factors in mammography.' Radiology 139, 195-199.
33. Chen, W., Poston, J. W. and Warner, G. G. (1978) An Evaluation of the Distribution of Absorbed Dose in Child Phantoms Exposed to Diagnostic Medical X Rays. ORNL-TM-5933 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
34. Cohen, M., Jones, D. E. A. and Green, D., Eds. (1972) 'Central axis depth dose data for use in radiotherapy.' Br. J. Radiol. Supplement 11.
35. Conway, B. J. (1994) Nationwide Evaluation of X-Ray Trends (NEXT). Summary of 1990 Computerized Tomography Survey and 1991 Fluoroscopy Survey. CRCPD Publication 94-2, CRCPD Committee (H-4) (Frankfort, KY: Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors).
36. Conway, B. J., Butler, P. F., Duff, J. E., Fewell, T. R., Gross, R. E., Jennings, R. J., Koustenis, G. H., McCrohan, L. J., Rueter, F. G. and Showalter, C. K. (1984) 'Beam quality independent attenuation phantom for estimating patient exposure from X-Ray automatic exposure controlled chest examinations.' Med. Phys. 11, 827-832.
37. Conway, B. J., Duff, J. E., Fewell, T. R., Jennings, R. J. Rothenverg, L. N. and Fleischman, R. C. (1990) 'A patient equivalent attenuation phantom for estimating patient exposures from automatic exposure controlled X-ray examinations of the abdomen and lumbosacral spine.' Med. Phys. 17, 448-453.
38. CRCPD. (2002) Conference on Radiation Control Program Directors. Nationwide Evaluation of X-ray Trends (NEXT). Tabulation and Graphical Summary of 1996 Fluoroscopy Survey. CRCPD Publication E-02-4 (USA: Conference of Radiation Control Program Directors Inc.).
39. Cristy, M. (1980) Mathematical Phantoms Representing Children of Various Ages for Use in Estimates of Internal Dose. NUREG/CR-1159, ORNL/NUREG/TM-367 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
40. Cristy, M. (1981) 'Active bone marrow distribution as a function of age in humans.' Phys. Med. Biol. 26, 389-400.
41. Dance, D. R. (1990) 'Monte Carlo calculation of conversion factors for the estimation of mean glandular breast dose.' Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 1211-1219.
42. Dance, D. R., Skinner, C. L., Young, K. C., Beckett, J. R. and Kotre, C. J. (2000) 'Additional factors for the estimation of mean glandular breast dose using the UK mammography dosimetry protocol.' Phys. Med. Biol. 45, 3225-3240.
43. De Sousa, M. C., Aubert, B. and Ricard, M. (2000) 'Evaluation of physical performance of a scintillation dosemeter for patient dosimetry in diagnostic radiology.' Br. J. Radiol. 73, 1297-1305.
44. DeWerd, L. A., Micka, J. A., Laird, R. W., Pearson, D. W., O'Brien, M. and Lamperti, P. (2002) 'The effect on calibration and measurement with mammographic ionization chambers.' Med. Phys. 29, 2649-2654.
45. Doi, K. and Chan, H. P. (1980) 'Evaluation of absorbed dose in mammography: Monte Carlo simulation studies.' Radiology 135, 199-208.
46. Doi, K., Holje, G., Loo, L.-N., Chan, H. P., Sandrik, J. M., Jennings, R. J. and Wagner, R. F. (1982) MTFs and Wiener Spectra of Radiographic Screen-Film Systems. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Publication Food and Drug Administration 82-8187.
47. Doi, K., Kodera, Y., Loo, L.-N., Chan, H. P. and Higashida, Y. (1986) MTFs and Wiener Spectra of Radiographic Screen-Film Systems, vol. 2. U.S. Department of Health and Human Services Publication Food and Drug Administration 86-8257.
48. Drexler, G., Panzer, W., Widenmann, L., Williams, G. and Zankl, M. (1990) The Calculation of Dose from External Photon Exposures Using Reference Human Phantoms and Monte Carlo Methods. Part III: Organ Doses in X-Ray Diagnosis. Revised and Amended, GSF-Bericht 11/90 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
49. Drexler, G., Panzer, W., Stieve, F.-E., Widenmann, L. and Zankl, M. (1993) Die Bestimmung von Organdosen in der Röntgendiagnostik. Zweite, Verbesserte Auflage (Berlin: H. Hoffmann Verlag).
50. Dutreix, A. and Bridier, A. (1985) Dosimetry for external beams of photon and electron radiation. In: The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation, vol. I, Kase, K. R., Bjärngard, B. E. and Attix, F. H., Eds. (Orlando, FL: Academic Press) pp. 164-228.
51. EC. (1996a) European Commission. The 1991 CEC Trial on Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images: Detailed Results and Findings. Report EUR 16635 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
52. EC. (1996b) European Commission. European Protocol on Dosimetry in Mammography. Report EUR 16263 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
53. EC. (1996c) European Commission. European Guidelines on Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images. Report EUR 16260 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
54. EC. (1996d) European Commission. European Guidelines on Quality Criteria for Diagnostic Radiographic Images in Paediatrics. Report EUR 16261 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
55. EC. (1997) European Commission. 'Council directive of June 30, 1997 (97/43/Euratom) on health protection of individuals against the dangers of ionizing radiation in relation to medical exposure.' Official J. Eur. Commun. No. L180/22.
56. EC. (2000) European Commission. European Guidelines on Quality Criteria for Computed Tomography. Report EUR 16262 (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
57. Ellis, R. E. (1961) 'The distribution of active bone marrow in the adult.' Phys. Med. Biol. 5, 255-259.
58. Ellis, R. E., Healy, M. J. R., Shleien, B. and Tucker, T. (1975) A System for Estimation of Mean Active Bone Marrow Dose. HEW Publication FDA 76-8015 (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
59. FDA. (1997) Food and Drug Administration. Computed Tomography (CT) equipment. Section 1020.33, Title 21 Code of Federal Regulations, Chapter J, Radiological Health, 1997 edition (Rockville, MD: U.S. Food and Drug Administration).
60. Fewell, T. R. and Shuping, R. E. (1978) Handbook of Mammographic X-Ray Spectra. HEW Publication FDA 79-8071 (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
61. Feller, W. (1968) An Introduction to Probability Theory and Its Applications, vol. I (New York: John Wiley and Sons).
62. Fill, U. A. and Regulla, D. F. (1998) 'Advanced LiF technology for the assessment of patient exposure in diagnostic radiology.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 80, 225-229.
63. Gard, M. F. (1996) 'Measurement of x-ray tube accelerating potential by differential beam filtration.' IEEE Trans. Instrum. Meth. 45, 745-749.
64. Geise, R. A. and Palchevsky, A. (1996) 'Composition of mammographic phantom materials.' Radiology 198, 347-350.
65. Geise, R. A., Schueler, B. A., Lien, W. and Jones, S. C. (1997) 'Suitability of laser stimulated TLD arrays as patient dose monitors in high dose x-ray imaging.' Med. Phys. 24, 1643-1646.
66. Geleijns, J. and Wondergem, J. (2005) 'X-ray imaging and the skin: radiation biology, patient dosimetry and observed effects.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 114, 121-125.
67. Geleijns, J., Broerse, J. J., Julius, H. W., Vrooman, H. A., Zoetelief, J., Zweers, D. and Schultze Kool, L. J. (1992) 'Dosimetric aspects of a scanning multiple beam equalization system for chest radiography (AMBER).' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 43, 155-159.
68. Geleijns, J., Van Unnik, J. G., Zoetelief, J., Zweers, D. and Broerse, J. J. (1994) 'Comparison of two methods for assessing patient dose from computed tomography,' Brit. J. Radiol. 67, 360-365.
69. Geleijns, J., Broerse, J. J., Chandie Shaw, M. P., Schultz, F. W., Teeuwisse, W., Van Unnik, J. G. and Zoetelief, J. (1997) 'Patient dose due to colon examination: dose assessment and results from a survey in the Netherlands.' Radiology 204, 553-559.
70. Gentry, J. R. and DeWerd, L. A. (1996) 'TLD measurements of in vivo mammographic exposures and the calculated mean glandular dose across the United States.' Med. Phys. 23, 899-903.
71. Giles, E. R. and Murphy, P. H. (2002) 'Measuring skin dose with radiochromic dosimetry film in the cardiac catheterization laboratory.' Health Phys. 82, 875-880.
72. Gilmore, B. J. and Cranley, K. (1990) 'Errors in the determination of total filtration of diagnostic x-ray tubes by the HVL method.' Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 999-1015.
73. Gkanatsios, N. A., Huda, W., Peters, K. R. and Freeman, J. A. (1997) 'Evaluation of an on-line patient exposure meter in neuroradiology.' Radiology 203, 837-842.
74. Gosch, D. and Gursky, S. (1992) 'Describing the radiation exposure of patients in diagnostic radiology on the basis of absorbed energy.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 43, 115-117.
75. Gregan, A. C. M., Peach, D. and McHugo, J. M. (1998) 'Patient dosimetry in hysterosalpingography: a comparative study.' Br. J. Radiol. 71, 1058-1061.
76. Grosswendt, B. (1984) 'Backscatter factors for x-rays generated at voltages between 10-100 kV.' Phys. Med. Biol. 29, 579-591.
77. Grosswendt, B. (1990) 'Dependence of the photon backscatter factor for water on source-to-phantom distance and irradiation field size.' Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 1233-1245.
78. Grosswendt, B. (1993) 'Dependence of the photon backscatter factor for water on irradiation field size and source-to-phantom distance between 1.5 and 10 cm.' Phys. Med. Biol. 38, 305-310.
79. Guibelalde, E., Vañó, E., Gonzales, L., Prieto, C., Fernandez, J. M. and Ten, J. I. (2003) 'Practical aspects for the evaluation of skin doses in interventional cardiology using a new slow film.' Br. J. Radiol. 76, 332-336.
80. Haddadi, R. and Renaud, L. (1993) Projections et Conditions Techniques en Usage en Angiocardiologie: Etude Statistique, Rapport Technique (Montreal: Service de Genie Biomedical, Institut de Cardiologie de Montreal).
81. Hall, E. J. (2000) Radiobiology for the Radiologist, 5th edition. (New York: Lippincott Williams and Wilkins).
82. Hall, P. (2002) 'Health consequences after irradiation in utero-human data. Risk of leukemia and mental retardation.' In: Proceedings of a scientific seminar held in Luxembourg on 5 November 2001 (Luxembourg: Office for Offical Publications of the European Communities) pp. 37-56.
83. Hall, P., Adami, H. O., Trichopoulos, D., Pedersen, N. L., Lagiou, P., Ekbom, A., Ingvar, M., Lundell, M. and Granath, F. (2004) 'Effect of low doses of ionising radiation in infancy on cognitive function in adulthood: Swedish population based cohort study.' Br. Med. J. 328, 19-21.
84. Hammerstein, G. R., Miller, D. W., White, D. R., Masterson, M. E., Woodard, H. Q. and Laughlin, J. S. (1979) 'Absorbed radiation dose in mammography.' Radiology 130, 485-491.
85. Harrison, R. M. (1982) 'Backscatter factors for diagnostic radiology (1-4 mm Al HVL).' Phys. Med. Biol. 27, 1465-1474.
86. Harrison, R. M., Walker, C. and Aukett, R. J. (1990) 'Measurement of backscatter factors for low energy radiotherapy (0.1-2.0 mm Al HVL) using thermoluminescence dosimetry.' Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 1247-1254.
87. Hart, D., Jones, D. G. and Wall, B. F. (1994a) Estimation of Effective Dose in Diagnostic Radiology from Entrance Surface Dose and Dose-Area Product Measurements. NRPB-R262 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
88. Hart, D, Jones, D. G. and Wall, B. F. (1994b) Normalised Organ Doses for Medical X-ray Examinations Calculated Using Monte Carlo Techniques. NRPB-SR262 (Chilton, UK: National Radiological Protection Board).
89. Hart, D, Jones, D. G. and Wall, B. F. (1996a) Coefficients for Estimating Effective Dose from Paediatric X-ray Examinations. NRPB-R279 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
90. Hart, D, Jones, D. G. and Wall, B. F. (1996b) Normalised Organ Doses for Paediatric X-ray Examinations Calculated Using Monte Carlo Techniques. NRPB-SR279 (Chilton, UK: National Radiological Protection Board).
91. Hart, D., Hillier, M. C., Wall, B. F., Shrimpton, P. and Bungay D. (1996c) Doses to Patients from Medical X-ray Examinations in the UK 1995. Report NRPB-R289 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
92. Havukainen, R. and Pirinen, M. (1993) 'Patient dose and image quality in five X-ray examinations.' Med. Phys. 20, 813-817.
93. Horowitz, Y.S. (1984) Thermoluminescence and Thermoluminescent Dosimetry (CRC Press, Inc., Boca Raton, Florida, USA).
94. Hubbell, J. H. and Seltzer S. M. (1995) Tables of X-ray Mass Attenuation and Mass Energy-Absorption Coefficients from 1 keVto 20 MeV for Elements Z = 1 to 92 and 48 Additional Substances of Dosimetric Interest. NISTIR 5632 (Gaithersburg, MD: National Institute of Standards and Technology).
95. Hubbell, J. H., Veigele, W. J., Briggs, E. A., Brown, R. T., Cromer, D. T. and Howerton, R. J. (1975) 'Atomic form factors, incoherent scattering functions and photon scattering cross-sections.' J. Phys. Chem. Ref. Data 4, 471-538.
96. Hwang, E., Gaxiola, E., Vlietstra, R. E., Brenner, A., Ebersole, D. and Browne K. (1998) 'Real-time measurement of skin radiation during cardiac catheterization.' Cathet. Cardiovasc. Diagn. 43, 367-370.
97. Hwang, J. M. L., Shoup, R. L. and Poston, J. W. (1976a) Mathematical Description of a Newborn for Use in Dosimetry Calculations. ORNL-TM-5433 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
98. Hwang, J. M. L., Shoup, R. L., Warner, G. G. and Poston, J. W. (1976b) Mathematical Descriptions of a One and Five Year Old Child for Use in Dosimetry Calculations. ORNL-TM-5293 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
99. IAEA. (1987) International Atomic Energy Agency. Absorbed Dose Determination in Photon and Electron Beams. IAEA Technical Reports Series 277 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency).
100. IAEA. (1994) International Atomic Energy Agency. Calibration of Dosimeters used in Radiotherapy. IAEA Technical Report Series 374 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency).
101. IAEA. (1996a) International Atomic Energy Agency. International Basic Safety Standards for Protection against Ionizing Radiation and for the Safety of Radiation Sources. IAEA Safety Series 115 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency).
102. IAEA. (1996b) International Atomic Energy Agency. Review of Data and Methods Recommended in the International Code of Practice. IAEA Technical Report Series No. 227, Absorbed Dose Determination in Photon and Electron Beams, IAEA-TECDOC-897 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency).
103. IAEA. (2000) International Atomic Energy Agency. Calibration of Radiation Protection Monitoring Instruments. IAEA Safety Reports Series No. 16 (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency).
104. ICRP. (1969) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radiosensitivity and Spatial Distribution of Dose. ICRP Publication 14 (London: Pergamon Press).
105. ICRP. (1975) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Reference Man: Anatomical, Physiological and Metabolic Characteristics. ICRP Publication 23 (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
106. ICRP. (1987) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 52. Ann. ICRP 17(4) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
107. ICRP. (1991a) International Commission on Radiological Protection. 1990 Recommendations of the International Commission on Radiological Protection. ICRP Publication 60. Ann. ICRP 21(1-3) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
108. ICRP. (1991b) International Commission on Radiological Protection. The Biological Basis for Dose Limitation in the Skin. ICRP Publication 59. Ann. ICRP 22(2) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
109. ICRP. (1995) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Age Dependent Doses to Members of the Public from Intake of Radionuclides: Part 4, Inhalation Dose Coefficients. ICRP Publication 71. Ann. ICRP 25(3-4) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
110. ICRP. (1996) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Radiological Protection and Safety in Medicine. ICRP Publication 73. Ann. ICRP 26(2) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
111. ICRP. (2000) International Commission on Radiological Protection. Avoidance of Radiation Injuries from Interventional Procedures. ICRP Publication 85. Ann. ICRP 30(2) (Oxford: Pergamon Press).
112. ICRU. (1961) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Report of the ICRU, NBS Handbook 78 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office).
113. ICRU. (1964) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Physical Aspects of Irradiation. ICRU Report 10b, NBS Handbook 85 (Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office).
114. ICRU. (1970) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Radiation Dosimetry: X-Rays Generated at Potentials of 5 to 150 kV. ICRU Report 17 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
115. ICRU. (1973) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Measurement of Absorbed Dose in a Phantom Irradiated by a Single Beam of X or Gamma Rays. ICRU Report 23 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
116. ICRU. (1980) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Radiation Quantities and Units. ICRU Report 33 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
117. ICRU. (1984) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Stopping Powers for Electrons and Positrons. ICRU Report 37 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
118. ICRU. (1985a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Intracavitary Therapy in Gynecology. ICRU Report 38 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
119. ICRU. (1985b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Determination of Dose Equivalents Resulting from External Radiation Sources. ICRU Report 39 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
120. ICRU. (1986) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Modulation Transfer Function of Screen-Film Systems. ICRU Report 41 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
121. ICRU. (1987) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Use of Computers in External Beam Radiotherapy Procedures with High-Energy Photons and Electrons. ICRU Report 42 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
122. ICRU. (1988) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Determination of Dose Equivalents from External Radiation Sources - Part 2. ICRU Report 43 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
123. ICRU. (1989a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Clinical Neutron Dosimetry - Part I: Determination of Absorbed Dose in a Patient Treated by External Beams of fast Neutrons. ICRU Report 45 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
124. ICRU. (1989b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Tissue Substitutes in Radiation Dosimetry and Measurement. ICRU Report 44 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
125. ICRU. (1992a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Measurements of Dose Equivalents from External Photon and Electron Radiations. ICRU Report 47 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
126. ICRU. (1992b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Phantoms and Computational Models in Therapy, Diagnosis and Protection. ICRU Report 48 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
127. ICRU. (1992c) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Photon, Electron, proton and Neutron Interaction Data for Body Tissues. ICRU Report 46 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
128. ICRU. (1993a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Prescribing, Recording and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy. ICRU Report 50 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
129. ICRU. (1993b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Quantities and Units in Radiation Protection Dosimetry. ICRU Report 51 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
130. ICRU. (1995) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Medical Imaging - The Assessment of Image Quality. ICRU Report 54 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
131. ICRU. (1997) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Dose and Volume Specification for Reporting Interstitial Therapy. ICRU Report 58 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
132. ICRU. (1998a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Conversion Coefficients for Use in Radiological Protection against External Radiation. ICRU Report 57 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
133. ICRU. (1998b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Clinical Proton Dosimetry - Part I: Beam Production, Beam Delivery and Measurement of Absorbed Dose. ICRU Report 59 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
134. ICRU. (1998c) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Fundamental Quantities and Units for Ionizing Radiation. ICRU Report 60 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
135. ICRU. (1999) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Prescribing, Recording and Reporting Photon Beam Therapy (Supplement to ICRU Report 50). ICRU Report 62 (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
136. ICRU. (2001) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Dosimetry for High Energy Photon Beams based on Standards of Absorbed Dose to Water. ICRU Report 64. J. ICRU 1 (1) (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
137. ICRU. (2002) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Absorbed Dose Specification in Nuclear Medicine. ICRU Report 67. J. ICRU 2 (1) (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
138. ICRU. (2003) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Image Quality in Chest Radiography. ICRU Report 70. J. ICRU 3 (2) (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
139. ICRU. (2004a) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Prescribing, Recording, and Reporting Electron Beam Dosimetry. ICRU Report 71. J. ICRU 4 (1) (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
140. ICRU. (2004b) International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. Dosimetry of Beta Rays and Low-Energy Photons for Brachytherapy with Sealed Sources.. ICRU Report 72. J. ICRU 4 (2) (Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements).
141. IEC. (1996) International Electrotechnical Commission. Medical Electrical Equipment - Dosimetric Instruments for Non-Invasive Measurements of X-Ray Tube Voltage in Diagnostic Radiology, IEC Publication 61676 (Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission).
142. IEC. (1997) International Electrotechnical Commission. Medical Electrical Equipment - Dosemeters with Ionization Chambers and/or Semiconductor Detectors as Used in X-Ray Diagnostic Imaging. IEC Publication 61674 (Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission).
143. IEC. (1999) International Electrotechnical Commission. Medical Electrotechnical Equipment-Particular Requirements for the Safety of X-Ray Equipment for Computed Tomography. IEC International Standard 60601-2-44 (Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission).
144. IEC. (2000) International Electrotechnical Commission. Dose Area Product Meters. IEC Publication 60580 (Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission).
145. IEC. (2004) International Electrotechnical Commission. Medical Diagnostic X-Ray Equipment - Radiation Conditions for Use in the Determination of Characteristics. IEC Publication 61267, FIDS (Geneva: International Electrotechnical Commission).
146. Iles, W. J. (1987) The Computation of Bremsstrahlung X-ray Spectra over an Energy Range 15 keV to 300 keV. NRPB-R204 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
147. IPEM. (1991) Institute of Physics and engineering in Medicine. Data for Estimating X-Ray Tube Total Filtration. IPEM Report no. 64 (York, UK: Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine).
148. IPEM. (1997) Institute of Physics and engineering in Medicine. Catalogue of Diagnostic X-Ray Spectra and Other Data. IPEM Report 78 (York, UK: Institute of Physics and Engineering in Medicine).
149. IPSM. (1991) Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine. 'Report of the IPSM working party on low- and medium-energy x-ray dosimetry.' Phys. Med. Biol. 36, 1027-1038.
150. IPSM, NRPB and CoR. (1992) Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine, National Radiological Protection Board and Royal College of Radiographers. National Protocol for Patient Dose Measurements in Diagnostic Radiology. (Chilton, UK: NRPB).
151. ISH and EC. (1998) Institut für Strahlen Hygiene and European Commission. 'Reference doses and quality in medical imaging.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 80, 1-354.
152. ISO, IEC, OIML and BIPM. (1992) International Organization for Standardization. International Electrotechnical Commission, International Organization of Legal Metrology and International Bureau of Weights and Measures. Guide to the Expression of Uncertainty in Measurement. (Geneva: International Organization for Standardization).
153. Jacobson, A. F., Cameron, J. R., Siedband, M. P. and Wagner, J. (1976) 'Test cassette for measuring peak tube potential of diagnostic x-ray machines.' Med. Phys. 3, 19-25.
154. Jansen, J. T. M., Dierker, J. and Zoetelief, J. (1994) 'Calculation of air kerma to mean glandular dose conversion factors for mammography units employing various target-filter combinations.' In: Proceedings of the Xth Scientific Symposium of the Belgian Society of Hospital Physicists, Schaeken, B. and Vanregemorter, J., Eds. (Antwerpen, Belgium: Belgian Society of Hospital Physicists) pp. 66-75.
155. Jansen, J. T., Geleijns, J. and Zoetelief, J. (1995) 'Calculation of computed tomography dose index to effective dose conversion factors based on measurement of the dose profile along the fan shaped beam.' Br. J. Radiol. 69, 33-41.
156. Jones, D. G. and Wall, B. F. (1985) Organ Doses from Medical X-Ray
157. Jones, D. G. and Shrimpton, P. C. (1991) Survey of CT Practice in the UK. Part 3: Normalised Organ Doses Calculated Using Monte Carlo Techniques. NRPB-R250 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
158. Jones, D. G. and Shrimpton, P. C. (1993) Normalised Organ Doses for X-ray Computed Tomography Calculated Using Monte Carlo Techniques. NRPB-SR250 (Chilton, UK: National Radiological Protection Board).
159. Kemerink, G. J., Borstlap, A. C. W., Frantzen, M. J., Schultz, F. W., Zoetelief, J. and van Engelshoven, J. M. A. (2001) 'Patient and occupational dosimetry in double contrast barium enema examinations.' Br. J. Radiol. 74, 420-428.
160. Kereiakes, J. G. and Rosenstein, M. (1980) Handbook of Radiation Doses in Nuclear Medicine and Diagnostic X-Rays. (Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press, Inc.).
161. Kerr, G. D. and Eckerman, K. F. (1985) 'Neutron and photon fluence-to-dose conversion factors for active marrow of the skeleton.' In: Proceedings of the Fifth Symposium on Neutron Dosimetry, vol. I, Schraube, H., Burger, G. and Booz, J., Eds., EUR 9762 EN (Luxembourg: CEC). pp. 133-145.
162. Kicken, P. J. H., Kemerink, G. J. and Van Engelshoven, J. M. A. (1999) 'Patient dosimetry in arteriography of the lower limbs. Part I: quantification of exposure.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 81, 25-36.
163. Klein, R., Aichinger, H., Dierker, J., Jansen, J. T. M., Joite-Barfuss, S., Säbel, M., Schulz-Wendtland, R. and Zoetelief, J. (1997) 'Determination of average glandular dose with modern mammography units for two large groups of patients.' Phys. Med. Biol. 42, 651-671.
164. Klevenhagen, S. C. (1982) 'The build-up of backscatter in the energy range 1 mm Al to 8 mm Al HVT.' Phys. Med. Biol. 27, 1035-1043.
165. Klevenhagen, S. C. (1989) 'Experimentally determined backscatter factors for x-rays generated at voltages between 16 and 140 kV.' Phys. Med. Biol. 34, 1871-1882.
166. Knoll, G. F. (2000) Radiation Detection and Measurement, 3rd edition (New York, NY: John Wiley and Sons, Inc.).
167. Kramer, H. M., Selbach, H.-J. and Iles, W. J. (1998) 'The practical peak voltage of diagnostic x-ray generators.' Br. J. Radiol. 71, 200-209.
168. Kramer, R., Zankl, M., Williams, G. and Drexler G. (1982) The Calculation of Dose from External Photon Exposures Using Reference Human Phantoms and Monte Carlo Methods. Part I: the Male (ADAM) and Female (EVA) Adult Mathematical Phantoms. GSF Bericht S-885 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
169. Kramer, R., Drexler, G, Petoussi-Henss, N., Zankl, M., Regulla, D. F. and Panzer, W. (2001) 'Backscatter factors for mammography calculated with Monte Carlo methods.' Phys. Med. Biol. 46, 771-781.
170. Küstner, H. (1924) 'Qualitatives über Filterschutz gegen Verbrennungen in der Röntgendiagnostik.' Fortschr. D. Röntgenstr. 32, 324-342.
171. Larsson, J. P., Persliden, J., Sandborg, M. and Alm Carlsson, G. (1996) 'Transmission ionization chambers for measurements of air collision kerma integrated over beam area. Factors limiting the accuracy of calibration.' Phys. Med. Biol. 41, 2381-2398.
172. Larsson, J. P., Persliden, J. and Alm Carlsson, G. (1998) 'Ionization chambers for measuring air kerma integrated over beam area. Deviations in calibration values using simplified calibration methods.' Phys. Med. Biol. 43, 599-604.
173. Lesperance, J. (1982) Coronary Angiography - Projections. Radiology Department Report (Montreal, Canada: Institut de Cardiologie de Montreal).
174. Ma, C and Nahum, A. E. (1995) 'Calculations of ion chamber displacement effect corrections for medium-energy x-ray dosimetry.' Phys. Med. Biol. 40, 45-62.
175. Ma, C.-M., Coffey, C. W., DeWerd, L. A., Liu, C., Nath, R. Seltzer, S. M. and Seuntens, J. P. (2001) 'AAPM protocol for 40-300 kV x-ray beam dosimetry in radiotherapy and radiobiology.' Med. Phys. 28, 868-893.
176. Maccia, C., Benedittini, M., Lefaure, C. and Fagnani, F. (1988) 'Doses to patients from diagnostic radiology in France.' Health Phys. 54, 397-408.
177. Maccia, C., Wall, B. F., Padovani, R., Shrimpton, P. C. and Husson B. (1989) Results of a trial set up by a study group of the radiation protection programme of the CEC. In: Optimization of Image Quality and Patient Exposure in Diagnostic Radiology, BIR Report 20, Moores B. M., Wall B. F., Eriskat, H. and Schibilla, H., Eds. (London: British Institute of Radiology).
178. Marshall, N. W., Noble, J. and Faulkner, K. (1995) 'Patient and staff dosimetry in neuroradiological procedures.' Br. J. Radiol. 68, 495-501.
179. McDowell, R. B., Morgan, T. J. and Smith, L. (1976) Experimental Procedure for the Evaluation of the X-Ray Exposure Study Model. (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
180. McKeever, S. W. S., Moscovitch, M. and Townsend, P. D. (1995) Thermoluminescence Dosimetry Materials: Properties and Uses. (Ashford, Kent, UK: Nuclear Technology Publishing).
181. McKinlay, A. F. (1981) Thermoluminescent Dosimetry. In: Medical Physics Handbook, vol. 5 (Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger).
182. McMaster, W. H., Kerr, G. D., Del Grande, B., Mallet, J. H. and Hubbell, J. H. (1969) Compilation of X-Ray Cross-Sections. Report UCRL-50174 Sec 2, Rev 1 (Springfield, USA: NTIS).
183. McParland, B. J. (1998) 'Entrance skin dose estimates derived from dose-area product measurements in interventional radiological procedures.' Br. J. Radiol. 71, 1288-1295.
184. MCPLIB. (1988) Monte Carlo Photon Library. Cross-Section Data of the MCNP Code Based on Hubbell et al. (1975) and Everett and Cashwell (1973) (Los Alamos, NM: Los Alamos National Laboratory).
185. Miller, D. L., Balter, S., Noonan, P. T. and Georgia, J. D. (2002) 'Minimizing radiation-induced skin injury in interventional radiology procedures.' Radiology 225, 329-336.
186. Morgan, R. H. (1961) 'The measurement of radiant energy levels in diagnostic roentgenology.' Radiology 76, 867-877.
187. NAS/NRC (1980) National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council. The Effects on Populations of Exposure to Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation.. Committee on the Biological Effects of Ionizing Radiations. BEIR I (Washington, DC: National Academy Press).
188. NAS/NRC (1990) National Academy of Sciences/National Research Council. Health Effects of Exposure in Low Levels of Ionizing Radiation. NCS Report 10 (Delft, Netherlands: Netherlands Commission on Radiation Dosimetry).
189. NCRP. (1986) National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements. Mammography - A User's Guide. NCRP Report No. 85 (Bethesda, MD: National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements).
190. NCS. (1997) Dosimetry of Low- and Medium Energy X Rays. NCS Report 10 (Delft, Netherlands: Netherlands Commission on Radiation Dosimetry).
191. NEXT. (1978) Nationwide Evaluation of X-ray Trends. US Dose Surveys 1955-1975. HEW Publication FDA (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
192. Ng, K.-H., Rassiah, P., Wang, H.-B., Hambali, A. S., Muthuvellu, P. and Lee, H.-P. (1998) 'Doses to patients in routine X-ray examinations in Malaysia.' Br. J. Radiol. 71, 654-660.
193. Oberhofer, M. and Scharmann, A. (1981) Thermoluminescent Dosimetry. (Published for the CEC, Bristol, UK: Adam Hilger).
194. O'Dea, T. J., Geise, R. A. and Ritenour, E. R. (1999) 'The potential for radiation-induced skin damage in interventional neuroradiological procedures: a review of 522 cases using automated dosimetry.' Med. Phys. 26, 2027-2033.
195. Pani, R. Ballesio, P. L., Pellegrini, R. and Soluri, A. (1987) 'Organ doses in mathematical phantoms with different elemental composition of organs and tissues.' Nucl. Instrum. Meth. Phys. Res. A255, 360-364.
196. Panzer, W., Scheurer, C. and Zankl, M. (1989) 'Dose to patients in CT examinations: results and consequences from a field study in the Federal Republic of Germany.' In: Optimization of Image Quality and Patient Exposure in Diagnostic Radiology. BIR Report 20, Moores, B. M., Wall, B. F, Eriskat, H. and Schibilla, H., Eds. (London, UK: British Institute of Radiology) pp. 185-188.
197. Papageorgiou, E., Vardalaki, E., Hourdakis, C. J. and Dimitriou, P. (2001) 'Estimation of doses received by patients undergoing radiological examinations in Greece.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 93, 31-41.
198. Pernicka, F., Alm Carlsson, G., Dance, D. R., DeWerd, L. A., Kramer, H. M. and Ng, K.-H (2001) 'Development of an International Code of Practice for Dosimetry in X-Ray Diagnostic Radiology.' In: Radiological Protection of Patients in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology, Nuclear Medicine and Radiotherapy, IAEA-CSP-7/P (Vienna: IAEA) pp. 93-98
199. Peterson, L. and Rosenstein, M. (1989) Computer Program for Tissue Doses in Diagnostic Radiology (for VAX and IBM-Compatible PC Systems) (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
200. Petoussi-Henss, N., Zankl, M., Drexler, G., Panzer, W. and Regulla, D. (1998) 'Calculation of backscatter factors for diagnostic radiology using Monte Carlo methods.' Phys. Med. Biol. 43, 2237-2250.
201. Petoussi-Henss, N., Zankl, M., Fill, U. and Regulla, D. (2002) 'The GSF family of voxel phantoms.' Phys. Med. Biol. 47, 89-106.
202. Poll, V., Beddoe, A. H., Aspden, P. J. and King, S. D. (1972) 'Thermoluminescence dosimetry of beta emitters in bone.' In: Proceedings of the Second International Conference on Strontium Metabolism. USAEC CONF-720818 (Springfield, VA: National Technical Information Service).
203. Preston, D. L., Shimizu, Y., Pierce, D. A., Suyama, A. and Mabuchi, K. (2003) 'Studies of mortality of atomic bomb survivors. Report 13: Solid cancer and noncancer disease mortality: 1950-1997.' Radiat. Res. 160, 381-407.
204. Regulla, D. F., Hieber, L. B. and Seidenbusch, M. (1998) 'Physical and biological interface dose effects in tissue due to x-ray-induces release of secondary radiation from metallic gold surfaces.' Radiat. Res. 150, 92-100.
205. Robertson, J., Holubinka, M. R., Jones, A. P., Moretti, C. J., Rawlings, D. J., Roberts, P. J. and Wall, B.F (1992) Calibration of Dosemeters used in Diagnostic Radiology. A protocol produced by the Dosimetry Working Party of the Diagnostic Radiology Topic Group of the Institute of Physical Sciences in Medicine. Scope 1, No. 4.
206. Rosenstein, M. (1976) Organ Doses in Diagnostic Radiology. HEW Publication FDA 76-8030 (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
207. Rosenstein, M. (1984) 'Handbook of glandular tissue doses in mammography.' Presentation at the 29th Meeting of the Health Physics Society, New Orleans, LA. (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
208. Rosenstein, M. (1988) Handbook of Selected Tissue Doses for Projections Common in Diagnostic Radiology. HHS Publication FDA 89-8031 (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
209. Rosenstein, M., Warner, G. G. and Beck, T. J. (1979) Handbook of Selected Organ Doses for Projections Common in Pediatric Radiology. HEW Publication FDA 79-8079 (Rockville, MD: Bureau of Radiological Health).
210. Rosenstein, M., Andersen, L. W. and Warner, G. G. (1985) Handbook of Glandular Tissue Doses in Mammography. HHS Publication FDA 85-8239 (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
211. Rosenstein, M., Suleiman, O. H., Burkhart, R. L., Stern, S. H. and Williams, G. (1992) Handbook of Selected Tissue Doses for the Upper Gastrointestinal Fluoroscopic Examination. HHS Publication FDA 92-8282 (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
212. Sáez, J. C., Romero, A. M., Ferández, C., Gómez, S., Vázquez, J. and Olivares, M. P. (1999) 'Dose measurements in a phantom simulating neonates by using different TL materials: LiF: Mg, Cu, P and LiF: Mg, Ti.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 85, 345-348.
213. Sankaranarayanan, K and Chakraborty, R. (2000) 'Ionizing radiation and genetic risks. XIII. Summary and synthesis of papers VI to XII and estimates of genetic risks in the year 2000.' Mutat. Res. 453, 183-197.
214. Schultz, F. W., Geleijns, J. and Zoetelief, J. (1994) 'Calculation of dose conversion factors for posterior-anterior chest radiography of adults with a relatively high x-ray spectrum.' Br. J. Radiol. 67, 775-785.
215. Schultz, F. W., Jansen, J. T. and Zoetelief, J. (2001) Organ and Effective Dose Conversion Factors for for Various Types of Examination in Diagnostic Radiology. State-chreport: ST-MSF-2001-012 (Delft, The Netherlands: Interfaculty Reactor Institute Delft University of Technology).
216. Seelentag, W. W., Panzer, W., Drexler, G., Platz, L. and Santer, F. (1979) A Catalogue of Spectra for the Calibration of Dosemeters. GSF-Bericht S 560 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
217. Seuntjens, J and Verhaegen, F. (1996) 'Dependence of the overall correction factor for a cylindrical ionization chamber on field size and depth in medium-energy x-ray beams.' Med. Phys. 23, 1789-1796.
218. Shope, T. B., Gagne, R. M. and Johnson, G. C. (1981) 'A method for describing the doses delivered by transmission x-ray computed tomography.' Med. Phys. 8, 488-495.
219. Shrimpton, P. C., Wall, B. F. and Fisher, E. S. (1981) 'The tissue-equivalence of the Alderson Rando anthropomorphic phantom for x-rays of diagnostic qualities.' Phys. Med. Biol. 26, 133-139.
220. 2) during diagnostic radiological examinations.' Phys. Med. Biol. 27, 871-878.
221. Shrimpton, P. C., Jones, D. G., Hillier, M. C., Wall, B. F., LeHeron, J. C. and Faukner, K. (1991) Survey of CT Practice in the UK Part 2: Dosimetric Aspects. NRPB-R249 (London, UK: Her Majesty's Stationary Office).
222. Shrimpton, P.C., Wall, B.F., Jones, D.G., Fisher, E.S., Hillier, M.C. and Kendall, G.M. (1986) A National Survey of Doses to Patients Undergoing a Selection of Routine X-Ray Examinations in English Hospitals. NRPB-R200 (Her Majesty's Stationary Office, London, UK).
223. Snyder, W. S., Ford, M. R., Warner, G. G. and Fisher, H. L. Jr (1969) 'Estimates of absorbed fraction for monoenergetic photon sources uniformly distributed in various organs of a heterogeneous phantom.' MIRD Pamphlet No. 5. J. Nucl. Med. 10, (Suppl. 3).
224. Sovik, E., Klow, N. E., Hellesnes, J. and Lykke, J. (1996) 'Radiation-induced skin injury after percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty - Case report.' Acta Radiol. 37, 305-306.
225. Spiers, F. W. (1963) 'Interim report on the determination of dose to bone marrow from radiological procedures.' Br. J. Radiol. 36, 238-240.
226. Stanton, L., Bratelli, S. D. and Day, L. J. (1982) 'Measurements of diagnostic x-ray backscatter by a novel ion chamber method.' Med. Phys. 9, 121-130.
227. Stanton, L., Villafana, T., Day, J. L. and Lightfoot, D. A. (1984) 'Dosage evaluation in mammography.' Radiology 150, 577-584.
228. Stern, S. H., Rosenstein, M., Renaud, L. and Zankl, M. (1995a) Handbook of Selected Tissue Doses for Fluoroscopic and Cineangiographic Examination of the Coronary Arteries (in SI units). HHS Publication FDA95-8289 (Rockville, MD: Center for Devices and Radiological Health).
229. Stern, S. H., Dennis, M. J., Williams, G. and Rosenstein, M. (1995b) 'Simulation of the upper gastrointestinal fluoroscopic examination for calculation of absorbed dose in tissue.' Health Phys. 69, 391-395.
230. Storm, E. and Israel, H. I. (1970) 'Photon cross sections from 1 keV to 100 MeV for elements Z=1 to Z=100.' Nuclear Data Tables Sec A 7, 565-688.
231. Struelens, L. (2005) Optimization of patient doses, linked to image quality, in vascular radiology, Ph.D. thesis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
232. Suleiman, O. H. (1989) Development of a method to calculate organ doses for the upper gastrointestinal fluoroscopic examination, Ph.D. Dissertation, School of Hygiene and Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD.
233. Tapiovaara, M., Lakkisto, M. and Servomaa, A. (1997) PCXMC: A PC-Based Monte Carlo Program for Calculating Patient Doses in Medical X-Ray Examinations. Report STUK-A139 (Helsinki: Finnish Centre for Radiation and Nuclear Safety).
234. Taylor, L. S. (1958) '80 Years of quantities and units. Personal reminescences, Part II: From the "International X-Ray Unit Committee" to the "International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements."' ICRU News 90-1, 4-9.
235. Taylor, L. S. (1990) 'History of the International Commission of Radiation Units and Measurements (ICRU).' Health Phys. 1, 306-314.
236. Tipton, I. H., Snyder, W. S. and Cook, M. J. (1966) Elemental Composition of Standard Man. ORNL-4007 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
237. Trout, E. D., Kelley, J. P. and Lucas, A. C. (1960) 'Determination of half-value layer.' Am. J. Röntgenol. 84, 729-734.
238. Tubiana, M., Aurengo, A., Averbeck, D., Bonnin, A., Le Guen, B., Masse, R., Monier, R., Valleron, A. J. and de Vathaire, F. (2005) 'La relation dose-effet et l'estimation des effets cancérogènes des faibles doses de rayonnements ionisants.' Rapport à l'Académie des Sciences et à l'Académie de Médecine, Edit. (Paris: Nucléon).
239. UNSCEAR. (1972) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Ionizing Radiation: Levels and Effects, vol. 1 Levels (New York: United Nations).
240. UNSCEAR. (1988) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources Effects and Risks of Ionizing Radiation (New York: United Nations).
241. UNSCEAR. (2000) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Sources and Effects of Ionizing Radiation, Report to the General Assembly with Scientific Annexes (New York: United Nations).
242. UNSCEAR. (2001) United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation. Hereditary Effects of Radiation. UNSCEAR 2001 Report to the General Assembly with Scientific Annex. (New York: United Nations).
243. Van Dam, J. and Marinello, G. (1994) Radiothermoluminescent dosimeters. In: Methods for in vivo Dosimetry in External Radiotherapy. European Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology. Booklet No. 1 in the series 'Physics for Clinical Radiotherapy', 1st edition (Leuven: Garant) pp. 37-54.
244. Van de Putte, S., Verhaegen, F., Taeymans, Y. and Thierens, H. (2000) 'Correlation of patient skin doses in cardiac interventional radiology with dose-area product.' Br. J. Radiol. 73, 504-513.
245. Vañó, E., Guibelalde, E., Fernández, J. M., González, L. and Ten, J. I. (1997) 'Patient dosimetry in interventional radiology using slow films.' Br. J. Radiol. 70, 195-200.
246. Vañó, E., Arranz, L., Sastre, J. M., Moro, C., Ledo, A., Garate, L. T. and Minguez, I. (1998) 'Dosimetric and radiation protection considerations based on some cases of patient skin injuries in interventional cardiology.' Br. J. Radiol. 71, 510-516.
247. Vañó, E., Goicolea, J., Galvan, C., González, L., Meiggs, L., Ten, J. I. and Macaya, C. (2001a) 'Skin radiation injuries in patients following repeated coronary angioplasty procedures.' Br. J. Radiol. 74, 1023-1031.
248. Vañó, E., Gonzalez, L., Ten, J. I., Fernandez, J. M., Guibelalde, E. and Macaya, C. (2001b) 'Skin dose and dose-area product values for interventional cardiology procedures.' Br. J. Radiol. 74, 48-55.
249. Vañó, E., Fernández, J. M., Ten, J. I., Guibelalde, E., González, L. and Pedroza, C. S. A. (2002) 'Real-time measurement and audit of radiation dose to patients undergoing computed radiography.' Radiology 225, 283-288.
250. Van Sonnenberg, E., Shankar, S., Morrison, P. R., Nair, R. T., Silverman, S. G., Jaklitsch, M. T., Liu, F., Cheung, L., Tuncali, K. Skarin, A. T. and Sugarbaker, D. J. (2005) 'Radiofrequency ablation of thoracic lesions: Part 2, initial clinical experience - Technical and multidisciplinary considerations in 30 patients.' Am. J. Roentgenol. 184, 381-390.
251. Veit, R., Zankl, M., Petoussi, N., Mannweiler, E., Williams, G. and Drexler, G. (1989) Tomographic Anthropomorphic Models. Part 1: Construction Technique and Description of Models of an 8 Week Old Baby and a 7 Year Old Child. GSF-Bericht 3/89 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
252. Veit, R. and Zankl, M. (1992) 'Influence of patient size on organ doses in diagnostic radiology.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 43, 241-243.
253. Veit, R. and Zankl, M. (1993) 'Variation in organ doses in pediatric radiology due to patient diameter, calculated with phantoms of varying voxel size.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 49, 353-356.
254. Vij, D. R., Ed. (1993) Thermoluminescent Materials (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: PTR Prentice Hall).
255. Villard, M. P. (1908) 'Instruments de mesure á lecture directe.' Arch. d'Elec. Med. 16, 692.
256. Wagner, L. K. and Pollock, J. J. (1999) 'Real-time monitoring to estimate dose to skin of patients from high dose fluoroscopy.' Br. J. Radiol. 72, 846-855.
257. Waite, J. C. and Fitzgerald, M. (2001) 'An assessment of methods for monitoring entrance surface dose in fluoroscopically guided interventional procedures.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 94, 89-92.
258. Wall, B. F. (1989) Quality control of dose-area product meters. In: Technical and Physical Parameters for Quality Assurance in Medical Diagnostic Radiology, BIR Report 18, Moores, B. M., Stieve, F. E., Eriskat H. and Schibilla H., Eds. (London, UK: British Institute of Radiology) pp. 140-142.
259. Wambersie, A., Smeesters, P. and Fruhling, J. (1995) 'Exposition aux rayonnements ionisants: effets radiobiologiques et pathogénie.' Louvain Médical 114, S97-S132.
260. Wambersie, A., Menzel, H. G., Gahbauer, R. A., Jones, D. T. L., Michael, B. D. and Paretzke, H. G. (2002) 'Biological weighting of absorbed doses in radiation therapy.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 99, 445-452.
261. Wambersie, A., Zoetelief, J., Menzel, H. G. and Paretzke, H. (2006) The ICRU (International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements): its contribution to dosimetry in diagnostic and interventional radiology. Radiat. Prot. Dosim. Advance Access published January 31, 2006.
262. Warner, G. G. (1973) BRHGAM: A Medical X-Ray Dose Estimation Program. ORNL-TM-4393 (Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory).
263. Wise, K. N., Sandborg, M., Persliden, J. and Alm Carlsson, G. (1999) 'Sensitivity coefficients for converting entrance surface dose and air-kerma area product to effective dose and energy imparted to the patient.' Phys. Med. Biol. 44, 1937-1954.
264. Wochos, J. F., Detorie, N. A. and Cameron, J. R. (1979) 'Patient exposure from diagnostic x-rays: an analysis of 1972-1975 NEXT data.' Health Phys. 36, 127-134.
265. Wu, D.-K., Sun, F.-Y. and Dai, H.-C. (1984) 'A high sensitivity LiF thermoluminescent dosemeter-LiF (Mg, Cu, P).' Health Phys. 46, 2237-2250.
266. Wu, X. (1991a) Breast dosimetry in screen-film mammography. In: Screen-Film Mammography: Imaging Considerations and Medical Physics Responsibilities, Barnes, G. T. and Tucker, D. M., Eds. (Madison, WI: Medical Physics Publishing) pp. 159-175.
267. Wu, X., Barnes, G. T. and Tucker, D. M. (1991b) 'Spectral dependence of glandular tissue dose in screen-film mammography.' Radiology 179, 143-148.
268. Wu, X., Gingold, E. L., Barnes, G. T. and Tucker, D. M. (1994) 'Normalized average glandular dose in molybdenum target-rhodium filter and rhodium target-rhodium filter mammography.' Radiology 193, 83-89.
269. Yamada, M., Wong, F. L., Fujiwara, S., Akahoshi, M. and Suzuki, G. (2004) 'Noncancer disease incidence in atomic bomb survivors, 1958-1998.' Radiat. Res. 161, 622-632.
270. Young, K. C., Ramsdale, M. L. and Bignall, F. (1998) 'Review of dosimetric methods for mammography in the UK breast screening programme.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 80, 183-186.
271. Zankl, M. and Wittmann, A. (2001) 'The adult male voxel model "Golem" segmented from whole body CT patient data.' Radiat. Environ. Biophys. 40, 153-162.
272. Zankl, M., Veit, R., Williams, G., Schneider, K., Fendel, H., Petoussi, N. and Drexler, G. (1988) 'The construction of computer tomographic phantoms and their application in radiology and radiation protection.' Radiat. Environ. Biophys. 27, 153-164.
273. Zankl, M., Petoussi, N., Veit, R. and Fendel, H. (1989) Organ doses for a child in diagnostic radiology: comparison of a realistic and a MIRD-type phantom. In: Optimization of Image Quality and Patient Exposure in Diagnostic Radiology, BIR Report 20, Moores, B. M., Wall, B. F., Eriskat, H. and Schibilla, H., Eds. (London: British Institute of Radiology,) pp. 196-198.
274. Zankl, M., Panzer, W. and Drexler, G. (1991) The Calculation of Dose from External Photon Exposures Using Reference Human Phantoms and Monte Carlo Methods. Part VI: Organ Doses from Computed Tomographic Examinations. GSF-Bericht 30/91 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
275. Zankl, M., Petoussi, N. and Drexler, G. (1992) 'Effective dose equivalent - the impact of the new ICRP definition for external photon irradiation.' Health Phys. 62, 395-399.
276. Zankl, M., Panzer, W. and Drexler, G. (1993) Tomographic Anthropomorphic Models. Part II: Organ Doses from Computed Tomographic Examinations in Paediatric Radiology. GSF-Bericht 30/93 (Neuherberg: GSF-National Research Centre for Environment and Health, D-85764, ISSN 0721-1694).
277. Zoetelief, J. and Jansen, J. T. (1995) 'Calculation of air kerma to average glandular tissue dose conversion factors for mammography.' Radiat. Prot. Dosim. 57, 397-400.
278. Zoetelief, J., Julius, H. W. and Christensen, P. (2000) Recommendations for Patient Dosimetry in Diagnostic Radiology Using TLDs (Luxembourg: Office for Official Publications of the European Communities).
279. Zoetelief, J., Julius, H. W. and Christensen, P. (2003a) Recommendations for patient dosimetry in diagnostic radiology using thermoluminescence dosimetry. In: Standards and Codes of Practice in Medical Radiation Dosimetry. Proceedings of an International Symposium, Vienna, 25-28 November 2002, IAEA-CN-96/39. (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency). pp. 439-447.
280. Zoetelief, J., Pernička, F., Alm Carlsson, G., Dance, D. R., DeWerd, L. A., Drexler, G., Järvinen, H., Kramer, H. M. and Ng, K.-H. (2003b) Dosimetry in Diagnostic and Interventional Radiology: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements and IAEA activities. In: Standards and Codes of Practice in Medical Radiation Dosimetry, Proceedings of an International Symposium, Vienna, 25-28 November 2002, IAEA-CN-96/39. (Vienna: International Atomic Energy Agency) pp. 387-404.