Review of dilated cardiomyopathies: Dilated cardiomyopathies and altered prothrombotic state - A point of view of the literature

Panminerva Medica

Volumn 47, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 157-167

  Mazzone, M ^a,b   La Sala, M ^a   Portale, G ^a   Ursella, S ^a   Forte, P ^a   Carbone, L ^a   Testa, A ^a   Pignataro, G ^a   Covino, M ^a   Silveri, N Gentiloni ^a  

^a CATHOLIC UNIVERSITY   (Italy)

^b FONDAZIONE POLICLINICO UNIVERSITARIO A GEMELLI IRCCS   (Italy)

Author keywords

Dilated cardiomyopathy; Hemostasis; Thrombosis

Indexed keywords

ANIMAL; BLOOD; CARDIOMYOPATHY; CLASSIFICATION; CONGESTIVE CARDIOMYOPATHY; CONGESTIVE HEART FAILURE; HEMOSTASIS; HUMAN; PATHOPHYSIOLOGY; PROGNOSIS; REVIEW; THROMBOSIS;

ANIMALS; CARDIOMYOPATHIES; CARDIOMYOPATHY, DILATED; HEART FAILURE, CONGESTIVE; HEMOSTASIS; HUMANS; PROGNOSIS; THROMBOSIS;

EID: 33644915540     PISSN: 00310808     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Review

References (109)

1. O'Connel JB, Bristow MR. Economie impact of heart failure in the United States: time for a different approach. J Heart Lung Transplant 1994;13:S107-12.
2. Richardson P, McKenna W, Bristow M, Maisch B, Mautner B, O'Connell J et al. Report of the 1995 World Health Organization/International Society and Federation of Cardiology Task Force on the definition and classification of cardiomyopathies. Circulation 1996;93:841-2.
3. Ho KK, Anderson KM, Kannel WB, Grossman W, Levy D. Survival after the onset of congestive heart failure in Framingham Heart Study subjects. Circulation 1993;88:107-15.
4. Guccione AA, Felson DT, Anderson JJ, Anthony JM, Zhang Y, Wilson PW et al. The effects of specific medical conditions on the functional limitations of elders in the Framingham Study. Am J Public Health 1994;84:351-8.
5. Cohn JN, Johnson GR, Shabetai R, Cooperative Studies Group. Ejection fraction, peak exercise oxygen consumption, cardiothoracic ratio, ventricular arrhythmias, and plasma norepinephrine as determinants of prognosis in heart failure. Circulation 1993;87(Suppl VI):VI 5-16.
6. Eichhorn EJ, Bristow MR. Medical therapy can improve the biologic properties of the chronically failing heart: a new era in the treatment of heart failure. Circulation 1996;94:2285-96.
7. Geisterfer-Lowrance AA, Kass S, Tanigawa G, Vosberg HP, McKenna W, Seidman CE et al. A molecular basis for familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy: a -cardiac myosin heavy chain missense mutation. Cell 1990;62:999-1006.
8. Tiret L, Rigat B, Visvikis S, Breda C, Corvol P, Cambien C et al. Evidence, from combined segregation and linkage analysis, that a variant of the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) gene controls plasma ACE livels. Am J Hum Genet 1992;51:197-205.
9. Jeunemaitre X, Soubrier F, Kotelevtsev Y, Lifton RP, Williams CS, Charru A et al. Molecular basis of human hypertension: role of angiotensinogen. Cell 1992;71:169-80.
10. Edwards JG, Lyons GE, Micales BK, Malhorta A, Factor S, Leinwand LA. Cardiomyopathy in transgenic myf5 mice. Circ Res 1996;78:379-87.
11. Iwase M, Bishop SR Uechi M, Vatner DE, Shannon RP, Kudej RK et al. Adverse effects of chronic endogenous sympathetic drive induced by cardiac G_s overexpression. Circ Res 1996;78:517-24.
12. Iwase M, Uechi M, Vatner DE, Asai K, Shannon RP, Kudej RK. Dilated cardiomyopathy induced by cardiac G_s overexpression. Circulation 1996;94:I16.
13. Bisognano JD, Pende A, Tremmel KD, Dutcher DL, Knudson OA, Bohlmeyer et al. Preliminary characterization of a transgenic mouse over-expressing the human 1 adrenergic receptor. J Invest Med 1997;45:210A
14. Geisterfer-Lawrence AA, Christe M, Conner DA, Ingwall GS, Seidman CE, Seidman JG. A mouce model of familiar hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Science 1996;272:731-5.
15. Vikstrom KL, Factor SM, Leinwand LA. Mice expressing mutant myosin heavy chains are a model for familiar hypertrophic cardiomyopathy. Mol Med 1996;2:556-67.
16. Hunter JJ, Tanaka N, Rockman HA, Ross J, Chien KR. Ventricular expression of a MLC-2v-.ras fusion gene induces cardiac hypertrophy and selective diastolic dysfunction in transgenic mice. J Biol Chem 1995;270:23173-8.
17. Robbins RJ, Swain JL. C-myc protooncogene modulates cardiac hypertrophic growth in transgenic mice. Am J Physiol 1992;62:H590-7.
18. Milano CA, Dolber PC, Rockman HA, Bond RA, Venable ME, Allen LF. Myocardial expression of a constitutively active β1-adrenergic receptor in transgenic mice induces cardiac hypertrophy. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 1994;1:10109-13.
19. Jan Danser AH, Maarten ADH, Schalekamp MD, Bax WA, Maasen van den Brink A. Saxena PR et al Angiotensin-converting enzyme in the human heart: effect of the deletion/insertion polymorphism. Circulation 1995;92:1387-8.
20. Lechin M, Quinones MA, Omran A, Hill R, Yu K-T, Rakowski H et al. Angiotensin-I converting enzime genotypes and left ventricular hypertrophy in patients with hypertrophie cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1995;92:1808-12.
21. Pinto YM, van Gilst WH, Kingma JH, Schunkert H, for the Captopril and Thrombolysis Study Investigators. Deletion type allele of the angiotensin-converting enzime gene is associated whit progressive ventricular dilatation after anterior myocardial infarction. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:1622-6.
22. Raynolds MV, Bristow MR, Bush E, Abraham WT, Lowes BD, Zisman LS et al. Angiotensin-converting enzime DD genotype in patients with ischaemic or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lancet 1993;342:1073-5.
23. Andersson B, Sylven C. The DD genotype of the angiotensine-converting enzime gene is associated with increased mortality in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;28:162-7.
24. Bonnardeaux A, Davies E, JeunemaÎtre X, Fery I, Charru A, Clauser E et al. Angiotensin II type 1 receptor gene polymorphism in human essential hypertension. Hypertension 1994;24:63-9.
25. Raynolds MW, Roden RL, Blain-Nelson P, Bristow MR, Perryman MP. Association of genetic variants in the angiotensin II type 1 receptor and angiotensinogen with end-stage heart muscle disease. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;27:27A.
26. Green SA, Cole G, Jacinto M, Innis M, Liggett SB. A polymorphism of the human β2-adrenergic receptor within the fourth transmembrane domain alters ligand binding and functional properties of the receptor. J Biol Chem 1993;668:23116-21.
27. Bristow MR, Gilbert EM. Improvement in cardiac myocyte function by biologic effects of medical therapy: a new concept in the treatment of heart failure. Eur Heart J 1995;16 (suppl F):20-31.
28. Ross J, Branwall E. Studies on Starling Law of the heart. IX. The effects of impeding venous return on performance of the normal and failing ventricle. Circulation 1964;30:719-27.
29. Holubarsch C, Thorsten R, Goldstein DJ, Ashton RC, Nicki G, Pieske B et al. Existence of the Frank-Starling mechanism in the failing human heart: investigations on the organ, tissue, and sarcomere levels. Circulation 1996;94:683-9.
30. Feldman MD, Gwathmey JK, Fillips P, Schoen F, Morgan JP. Reversal of the force-frequency relationship in working myocardium from patients with end-stage heart failure. J Appl Cardiol 1988;3:273-83.
31. Muleiry LA, Hasenfuss G, Leavitt B, Allen PD, Alpert NR. Altered myocardial force-frequency relationship in the human heart failure. Circulation 1992;85:1743-50.
32. Cohn JN. Structural basis for heart failure: ventricular remodeling and its pharmacological inhibition. Circulation 1995;91:2501-7.
33. Gerdes AM, Capasso JM. Structural remodeling mechanical dysfunction of cardiac myocytes in heart failure. J Mol Cell Cardiol 1995;27:849-56.
34. Davies CH, Davia K, Bennet JG, Pepper JR, Poole-Wilson PA, Harding SE. reduced contraction and altered frequency response of isolated ventricular myocytes from patient with heart failure. Circulation 1995;92:2540-9.
35. Nadal-Ginard B, Mahdavi V. Molecular basis of cardiac performance. J Clin Invest 1989;84:1693-700.
36. Lowes BD, Minobe WA, Abraham WT, Roden RL, Port JD, Gilbert EM et al. Downregulation of β- and upregulation of β-myosin heavy chain in intact, failing human left ventricles. J Am Coll Cardiol 1997;29(SupplA):422A.
37. Arber S, Hunter JJ, Ross J, Kongo M, Sansin G, Borg J et al. MLP-deficient mice exhibit a disruption of cardiac cytoarchitectural organization, dilated cardiomyopathy, and heart failure. Cell 1997;88:393-403.
38. Tsutsui H, Ishihara K, Cooper GIV. Cytoskeletal role in the contractile dysfunction of hypertrophied myocardium. Science 1993;260:682-7.
39. Maeda M, Holder E, Lowes B,Valent S, Bies RD. Dilated cardiomyopathy associared with deficiency of the cytoskeletal protein metavinculin. Circulation 1997;95:17-20.
40. Gerdes AM, Kellerman SE, Moore JA, Muffly KE, Clark LC, Reaves PY. Structural remodeling of cardiac myocytes from patient with chronic ischemic heart disease. Circulation 1992;86:426-30.
41. Gerdes AM, Kellerman SE, Schocken DD. Implication of cardiomyocyte remodeling in heart dysfunction. In: Dhalla NS, Beamish RE, Takeda N, Nagano N, editors. The Failing Heart. New York: Raven Press; 1995. p. 197-205.
42. Gerdes AM, Odera T, Wang X, McCune SA. Myocyte remodeling during progression to failure in rats with hypertension. Hypertension 1996;28:609-14.
43. Zhang J, McDonald KM. Bioenergetic consequences of left ventricular remodeling. Circulation 1995;92:1011-9.
44. Sata M, Sugiura S, Yamashita H, Momomura S, Serizawa T. Coupling between myosin ATPase cycle and creatine kinase cycle facilitates cardiac actomyosin sliding in vitro: a clue to mechanical dysfunction during myocardial ischemia. Circulation 1996;93:310-7.
45. Cintron C, Johnson G, Francis G, Cobb F, Cohn JN. Prognostic significance of serial changes in left ventricular ejection fraction in patients with congestive heart failure. Circulation 1993;87(suppl VI):VI17-I23.
46. Binkley PF, Nunziaya E, Haas GH, Nelson SD, Cody RJ. Parasympathetic withdrawal is an integral component of autonomic imbalance in congestive heart failure: demostration in human subjects and verification in a paced canine model of ventricular failure. J Am Coll Cardiol 1991;18:464-72.
47. Chidiac P, Hebert TE, Valiquette M, Dennis M, Bouvier M. Inverse agonist activity of β-adrenergic antagonists. Mol Pharmacol 1994;45:490-9.
48. Bond RA, Leff P, Johnson TD, Milano C, Rockman H, McMinn TR et al. Physiological effects of inverse agonists in transgenic mice with myocardial overexpression of the β2-adrenoceptor. Nature 1995;374:272-6.
49. Mewes T, Duts S, Ravens U, Jakobs KH. Activation of calcium currents in cardiac myocytes by empy β-adrenoceptors. Circulation 1993;88:2916-22.
50. Milano CA, Allen LF, Rockman HA, Dolber PC, McMinn TR, Chien KR et al. Enhanced myocardial function in transgenic mice overexpressing the β-adrenergic receptor. Science 1994;264:562-6.
51. Narula J, Haider N, Virmani R, DiSalvo TG, Colodgie FD, Hajjar RJ et al. Apoptosis in myocytes in end-stage heart failure. N Engl J Med 1996;335:1182-9.
52. Geng Y-J, Ishikawa Y, Vatner DE, Wagner TE, Bishop, Watner SF et al. Overexpression of GγS accelerates programmed death (apoptosis) of myocardiocytes in transgenic mice. Circulation 1996;94:I282.
53. Teiger E, Dam T-V, Richard L, Wisnewsky C, Tea B-S, Sgaboury L et al. Apoptosis in pressure overlod-induced heart hypertrophy in the rat. J Clin Invest 1996;97:2891-7.
54. Swedburg K, Eneroth P, Kjekshus J, Wilhelmsen L. Hormones regulating cardiovascular function in patients with severe congestive heart failure and their relation to mortality. Circulation 1990;82:1730-6.
55. Cohn JN, Levine TB, Olivari MT, Garberg V, Lura D, Francis GS et al. Plasma norepinephrine as a guide to prognosis patients with chronic congestive heart failure. N Engl J Med 1984;311:819-23.
56. Kaye DM, Lefkovits J, Jennings GL, Bergin P, Broughton A, Esler D. Adverse consequences of high sympathetic nervous activity in the failing human heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1257-63.
57. Bristow MR, O'Connell JB. Myocardial diseases. In: Kelly WN, editor. Textbook of internal medicine, 3rd ed. Philadelphia; Lippincott; 1977. p.398-405.
58. Codd MB, Sugrue DD, Gersh BJ, Melton LJ. Epidemiology of idiopathic dilated and hypertrophie cardiomyopathy : a population based study in Olmstead County, MN 1975-1984. Circulation 1989;80:564-72.
59. Torp A. Incidence of congestive cardiomyopathy. Postgrad Med J 1978;54:435-9.
60. Silver MA. Anatomy of the failing heart in dilated cardiomyopathy. In: Engelmeyer RS, O'Connell JB, editors. Drug therapy in dilated cardiomyopathy and myocarditis. New York: Marcel Dekkel; 1988. p.112.
61. Roberts WC, Siegel RJ, McManus BM. Idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: analysis of 152 necropsy patients. Am J Cardiol 1987;60:1340-55.
62. Arbustini E, Pucci R, Pozzi R, Grasso R, Graziano G, Campani C. Ultrastructural changes in myocarditis and dilated cardiomyopathy. In: Baroldi G, Camerini F, Goodwin JF, editors. Advances in Cardiomyopathies. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1990. p. 274-89.
63. Schwarz F, Mal G, Zebe H, Schmitzer E, Manthe Y G, Scheurlen H et al. Determinants of survival in patients with congestive cardiomyopathy: quantitative morphologic findings and left ventricular hemodynamics. Circulation 1984;70:923-8.
64. Hammond EH, Andersson JI, Mellove RL. Diagnostic and prognostic value of imrnunofluorescence and electron-microscopic findings in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. In: Bavoldi G, Camerini F, Goodwin JF, editors. Advances in Cardiomyopathies. Berlin: Springer-Verlag; 1990. p. 290-301.
65. Maeda M, Nakao S, Miyazato H, Setobuchi M, Arima S, Higuchi I et al. Cardiac dystrophin abnormalities in Becker muscular dystrophy assessed by endomyocardial biopsy. Am Heart J 1995;129:702-7.
66. Michels VV, Moll PP, Miller FA, Tajik AJ, Chu JS, Driscoll DJ et al. The frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy in a series of patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. N Engl J Med 1992;326:77-82.
67. Gregori D, Rocco C, DiLenarda A, Sinagra G, Miocic S, Camerini F et al. Estimating the frequency of familial dilated cardiomyopathy and the risk of misclassification errors. Circulation 1996;94:1270.
68. Krajinovic M, Pinamonti B, Sinagra GF, Vatta M, Severini GM, Milasin J et al. Linkage of familial idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy to chromosome 9. Am J Hum Genet 1995;57:846-52.
69. Durand JB, Bakinski LL, Bieling LC, Czernuszewicz GJ, Abchee AB, Yu QT et al. Localization of a gene responsible for familial dilated cardiomyopathy to chromosome Iq32. Circulation 1995;92:3387-9.
70. Towbin JA, Hejtmancik JF, Brink P, Gelb BD, Zhu XM, Chambellai GS et al. X-linked cardiomyopathy. Molecular genetic evidence of linkage to the Duchenne muscular dystrophy (dystrophin) gene at the Xp21 locus. Circulation 1993;87:1854-65.
71. Montoni F, Wilson L, Marrosu G, Marrosu MG, Cianchetti C, Mestrone L et al. A mutation in the dystrophin gene selectively affecting dystrophin expression in the heart. J Clin Invest 1995;96:693-8.
72. Bies RD, Holder E, Maeda M. X-linked cardiomyopathy: selective deficiency of distrophy MRNA and protein in the heart. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;25:277A.
73. Melacini P, Fanin M, Danieli GA, Villanova C, Martinello F, Miorin M et al. Myocardial involvement is very frequent among patients affected with subclinical Becker's muscular dystrophy. Circulation 1996;94:3168-75.
74. Franciosa JA, Willen M, Ziesche S, Chon JN. Survival in men with severe chronic left ventricular failure due to either coronary heart disease or idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1983;51:831-6.
75. Likoff MJ, Chandler SI, Kay HR. Clinical determinants of mortality in chronic congestive heart failure secondary to idiopathic dilated or to ischemic cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1987;59:634-8.
76. Fuster V, Gersh BJ, Giuliani ER, Tajik AJ, Brandenburg RO, Frye RL. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyipathy. Am J Cardiol 1981;47:525-31.
77. Redfield MM, Gersh BJ, Bailey KR, Ballard DJ, Rodeheffer RJ. Natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy: Effect of referral bias and secular trend. J Am Coll Cardol 1993;22:1921-6.
78. The SOLVD investigators. Effect of angiotensin converting enzyme inhibition with enalapril on survival in patients with reduced left ventricular ejection fraction and congestive heart failure: Results of the Treatment Trial of the Studies of Left Ventricular Dysfunction (SOLVD): a radomized double-blind trial. N Engl J Med 1991;325:293-302.
79. Packer M, Bristw MR, Chon JN, Colucci WS, Fowler MB, Gilbert EM et al. Effect of carvedilol on morbidity and mortality in patients with chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1996;334:1349-55.
80. Waagstein F, Bristow MR, Swedberg K, Camerini F, Fowler MB, Johnson M et al. Beneficial effects of metoprolol in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lancet 1993;342:1441-6.
81. CIBIS Investigators. A randomized trial of beta-blockade in heart failure: The cardiac insufficiency bisoprolol study (CIBIS). Circulation 1994;90:1765-73.
82. Hosenpud JD, Novick RJ, Bennett LE, Kech BM, Fiol B, Daily OP. The registry of the international society for heart and lung transplantation: thirteenth official report 1996. J Heart Lung Transplant 1996;15:655-74.
83. Woodley SL, Gilbert EM, Anderson JL, O'Connell JB, Deitchman D, Yanowitz FG et al. Beta-blockade with bucindolol in heart failure due to ischemic vs idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1991;84:2426-41.
84. Bristow MR, Colucci WS, Fowler MB, Gilbert EM, Lukas MA, Young ST et al. Effect of carvedilol on survival and hospitalization in patients with ischemic or nonischemic cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1996;94:1338.
85. Bristow MR, Anderson FL, Port JD, Skerl L, Hershberger RE, Larrabee P et al. Differences in beta-adrenergic neuroeffector mechanisms in ischemic vs idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Circulation 1991;84:1024-39.
86. Waagstein F, Bristow MR, Swedberg K, Camerini F, Fowler MB, Silver MA et al. Beneficial effects of metoprolol in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Lancet 1993;342:1441-6.
87. Siostrzonek P, Koppensteiner R, Kreiner G. Abnormal blood rheology in idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1992;5:1497-9.
88. Fuster V, Gersh G, Tajik AJ. The natural history of idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Am J Cardiol 1981;47:525-31.
89. Gottdiener JS, Gay JA, VanVoorhees L. Frequency and embolic potential of left ventricular thrombus in dilated cardiomyopathy: assessment by 2-dimensional echocardiography. Am J Cardiol 1983;52:1281-5.
90. Maze SS, Kotler MN, Parry WR. Flow characteristics in the dilated left ventricle with thrombus:qualitative and quantitative Doppler analysis. Am J Cardiol 1989;13:873-81.
91. Jafri SM, Ozawa T, Mammen E. Platelet function, thrombin and fibrinolytic activity in patients with heart failure. Eur Heart J 1993;14:205-12.
92. Yamamoto K, Ikeda U, Furuhashi K. The coagulation system is activated in idiopathic cardiomyopathy. J Am Coll Cardiol 1995;26:1757-8
93. Gustavsson CG, Persson S, Larsson H. Changed blood rheology in patients with idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy. Angiology 1994;45:107-11
94. Chien S. Biophysical behaviour of red cells in suspension. In: Surgenor DM, editor. The red blood cell. San Francisco: Academic Press; 1975. p. 2-12.
95. Tsai LM, Chen JH, Tsao CJ. Relation of left atrial spontaneous echo contrast with prethrombotic state in atrial fibrillation associated with systemic hypertension, idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy, or no identifiable cause. Am J Cardiol 1998;81:1249-51.
96. Kahn SR, Solymoss S, Flegel KM. Nonvalvular atrial fibrillation: evidence for a prothrombotic state. Can Med Ass 1997;157:673-81.
97. Figulla HR, Vetterlein F, Glaubitz M, Kreuzer H. Inhomogenous capillary flow and its prevention by verapamil and hydralazine in the cardiomyopathic Syrian hamster. Circulation 1987;76:208-16.
98. Curtius JM, Scharf RE, Freund U, Kuhn H. [Thrombocyte activity in dilatative cardiomyopathy and latent cardiomyopathy compared to coronary heart disease] Z Kardiol 1984;73:224-30. (German)
99. Factor SM, Sonnenblick EH. Hypothesis: is congestive cardiomyopathy caused by a hyperreactive myocardial microcirculation (microvascular spasm)? Am J Cardiol 1982;50:1149-52.
100. Hoffmeister A, Hetzel J, Sander S. Plasma viscosity and fibrinogen in relation to hemodynamic findings in chronic congestive heart failure. Eur J Heart Failure 1999;1:293-5.
101. Levine B, Kalman J, Mayer L. Elevated circulating levels of tumor necrosis factor in severe chronic heart failure. N Engl J Med 1990;323:236-41.
102. Testa M, Yeh M, Lee P, Fanelli R, Loperfido F, Herman JW et al. Circulating levels of cytokines and their endogenous modulators in patients with mild to severe congestive heart failure due to coronary heart disease or hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 1996;28:964-71.
103. Nasonov EL, Aleksandrova LZ, Samsonov MIu. Immunoregolatory disorders and activation of the immune system in dilated cardiomyopathy. Ter Arkh 1998;60:25-30.
104. Riza Erbay A, Turhan H, Aksoy Y, Senen K, Yetkin E. Activation of coagulation system in dilated cardiomyopathy: comparison of patients with and without left ventricular thrombus. Coron Artery Dis 2004;15:265-8.
105. Yuksek MB, Akin Y, Biyikoglu SF, Guray U, Kisacik HL, Korkmaz S. Left ventricular thrombosis is associated with increased mean platelet volume in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and sinus rhythm. Acta Cardiol 2004;59:41-5.
106. Erbay AR, Turhan H, Senen K, Yetkin F, Ayaz S, Kara F, Buyukasik NS, Yetkin E. Predictors of left ventricular thrombus formation in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy: role of activated protein C resistance. Coron Artery Dis 2004;15:107-10.
107. Hunt SA, Baker DW, Chin HM, Cinquegrani MP, Feldman AM, Francis GS et al. ACC/AHA Guidelines for the evaluation and management of chronic heart failure in the adult: executive summary. A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association task force on practice guidelines (commmittee to revise the 1995 guidelines for the evaluation and management of heart failure) developed in collaboration with the International Society for Heart and Lung Transplantation endorsed by the Heart Failure Society of America. J Am Coll Cardiol 2001;38:2101-13.
108. Crawford CT, Smith WT, Velazquez EJ, Taylor SM, Jollis JG, Kisslo J. Prognostic usefulness of left ventricular thrombus by echocardiography in dilated cardiomyopathy in predicting stroke, transient ischemic attack and death. Am J Cardiol 2004;93:500-3.
109. Sirajuddin RA, Miller AB, Geraci SA. Anticoagulation in patients with dilated cardiomyopathy and sinus rhythm: a critical literature review. J Card Fail 2002;8:48-53.