Blood pressure as a risk factor for stroke and the impact of antihypertensive treatment

Cerebrovascular Diseases

Volumn 20, Issue SUPPL. 2, 2005, Pages 40-52

  Gil Núñez, Antonio C ^a   Vivancos Mora, José ^b  

^a HOSPITAL GENERAL UNIVERSITARIO GREGORIO MARAÑÓN   (Spain)

^b HOSPITAL UNIVERSITARIO DE LA PRINCESA   (Spain)

Author keywords

Hypertension; Normotension; Prevention; Renin angiotensin system; Review; Risk factor; Stroke

Indexed keywords

AMLODIPINE; ANGIOTENSIN 2 RECEPTOR ANTAGONIST; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENT; ANTILIPEMIC AGENT; ANTITHROMBOCYTIC AGENT; ATENOLOL; BETA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; CALCIUM ANTAGONIST; CANDESARTAN; CHLORTALIDONE; DILTIAZEM; DIPEPTIDYL CARBOXYPEPTIDASE INHIBITOR; DIURETIC AGENT; ENALAPRIL; ENALAPRIL MALEATE PLUS NITRENDIPINE; ENALAPRIL PLUS HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; EPROSARTAN; HYDROCHLOROTHIAZIDE; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; INDAPAMIDE; LISINOPRIL; LOSARTAN; NIFEDIPINE; NILUDIPINE; NITRENDIPINE; PERINDOPRIL; RAMIPRIL; TERMILSARTAN; THIAZIDE DIURETIC AGENT; UNCLASSIFIED DRUG; VERAPAMIL;

ALCOHOL ABUSE; ARTERIOSCLEROSIS; BLOOD PRESSURE; BLOOD PRESSURE REGULATION; CAROTID ENDARTERECTOMY; CLINICAL TRIAL; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONFERENCE PAPER; DEMENTIA; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART INFARCTION; HUMAN; HYPERKALEMIA; HYPERTENSION; META ANALYSIS; MORTALITY; OXIDATIVE STRESS; PHYSICAL DISABILITY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RECURRENT DISEASE; RENIN ANGIOTENSIN ALDOSTERONE SYSTEM; RISK FACTOR; SMOKING; STATISTICAL SIGNIFICANCE; STROKE; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; ANIMAL; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; DRUG EFFECT; PHYSIOLOGY; REVIEW;

ANIMALS; ANTIHYPERTENSIVE AGENTS; BLOOD PRESSURE; CEREBROVASCULAR ACCIDENT; HUMANS; HYPERTENSION; RECURRENCE; RISK FACTORS;

EID: 33644801242     PISSN: 10159770     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000089356     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (118)

1. Gorelick PB: Stroke prevention: windows of opportunity and failed expectations? A discussion of modifiable cardiovascular risk factors and a prevention proposal. Neuroepidemiology 1997;16:163-173.
2. Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Hedner T, Hansson L: Stroke is more common than myocardial infarction in hypertension; analysis based on 11 major randomized trials. Blood Press 2001;10:190-192.
3. Martin D, Panayiotou F, Panayiotou B: Antihypertensive therapy in the prevention of stroke. What, when and for whom? Drugs 1999;58:663-674.
4. Burt VL, Whelton P, Roccella EJ, Brown C, Cutler JA, Higgins M, et al: Prevalence of hypertension in the US adult population: results from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, 1988-1991. Hypertension 1995;25:305-313.
5. Joint National Committee: The sixth report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure. Arch Intern Med 1997;157:2413-2446.
6. Chobanian AV, Bakris GL, Black HR, Cushman WC, Green LA, Izzo JL Jr, et al: The Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure: The JNC 7 Report. JAMA 2003;289:2560-2571.
7. MacMahon S, Peto R, Cutler J, Collins R, Sorlie P, Neaton J, et al: Blood Pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. I. prolonged differences in blood pressure: prospective observational studies corrected for the regression dilution bias. Lancet 1990;335:765-774.
8. Eastern Stroke and Coronary Heart Disease Collaborative Research Group: Blood pressure, cholesterol, and stroke in eastern Asia. Lancet 1998;352:1801-1807.
9. Rodgers A, MacMahon S, Gamble G, Slattery J, Sandercock P, Warlow C: Blood pressure and risk of stroke in patients with cerebrovascular disease. The United Kingdom Transient Ischaemic Attack Collaborative Group. Br Med J 1996;313:147.
10. Friday G, Alter M, Lai SM: Control of hypertension and risk of stroke recurrence. Stroke 2002;33:2652-2657.
11. Vasan RS, Larson MG, Leip EP, Evans JC, O'Donnell CJ, Kannel WB, Levy D: Impact of high-normal blood pressure on the risk of cardiovascular disease. N Engl J Med 2001;345:2191-1297.
12. Lewington S, Clarke R, Qizilbash N, Peto R, Collins R; Prospective Studies Collaboration: Age-specific relevance of usual blood pressure to vascular mortality: a meta-analysis of individual data for one million adults in 61 prospective studies. Lancet 2002;360:1903-1913.
13. Lawes CM, Rodgers A, Bennett DA, Parag V, Suh I, Ueshima H, MacMahon S; Asia Pacific Cohort Studies Collaboration: Blood pressure and cardiovascular disease in the Asia Pacific region. J Hypertens 2003;21:707-716.
14. Irie K, Yamaguchi T, Minematsu K, Omae T: The J-curve phenomenon in stroke recurrence. Stroke 1993;24:1844-1849.
15. Vokó Z, Bots ML, Hofman A, Koudstaal PJ, Witteman JCM, Breteler MMB: J-Shaped relation between blood pressure and stroke in treated hypertensives. Hypertension 1999;34:1181-1185.
16. Rothwell PM, Howard SC, Spence JD, for the Carotid Endarterectomy Trialists' Collaboration: Relationship between blood pressure and stroke risk in patients with symptomatic carotid occlusive disease. Stroke 2003;34:2583-2592.
17. Boutitie F, Gueyffier F, Pocock S, Fagard R, Boissel JM, for the INDANA Project Steering Committee: J-Shaped relationship between blood pressure and mortality in hypertensive patients: new insights from a meta-analysis of individual-patient data. Ann Intern Med 2002;136:438-448.
18. Cifkova R, Erdine S, Fagard R, Farsang C, Heagerty AM, Kiowski W, et al: ESH/ESC Hypertension Guidelines Committee. Practice guidelines for primary care physicians: 2003 ESH/ESC hypertension guidelines. J Hypertens 2003;21:1779-1786.
19. Rodgers A, Neal B, Macmahon S: The effects of blood pressure lowering in cerebrovascular disease. Neurol Rev Int 1997;2:12-15.
20. Wright JM, Lee C-H, Chambers GK: Systematic review of antihypertensive therapies: does the evidence assist in choosing a first-line drug? Can Med Assoc J 1999;161:25-32.
21. Goldstein LB, Adams R, Becker K, Furberg CD, Gorelick PB, Hademenos G, et al: Primary prevention of ischemic stroke. A statement for healthcare professionals from the Stroke Council of the American Heart Association. Stroke 2001;103:280-299.
22. Psaty BM, Smith NL, Siscovick DS, Koepsell TD, Weiss NS, Heckbert SR, et al: Health outcomes associated with antihypertensive therapies used as first-line agents: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA 1997;277:739-745.
23. Perry HM Jr, Davis BR, Price TR, Applegate WB, Fields WS, Guralnik JM, et al: Effect of treating isolated systolic hypertension on the risk of developing various types and subtypes of stroke. JAMA 2000;284:465-471.
24. Collins R, Peto R, MacMahon S, Hebert P, Fiebach NH, Eberlein KA, et al: Blood pressure, stroke, and coronary heart disease. II. Short-term reductions in blood pressure: overview of randomised drug trials in their epidemiological context. Lancet 1990;335:827-838.
25. Staessen JA, Fagard R, Thijs L, Celis H, Arabidze GG, Birkenhager WH, et al: Randomised double-blind comparison of placebo and active treatment for older patients with isolated systolic hypertension: the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) Trial Investigators. Lancet 1997;350:757-764.
26. SHEP Cooperative Research Group: Prevention of stroke by antihypertensive drug treatment in older persons with isolated systolic hypertension: final results of the Systolic Hypertension in the Elderly Program (SHEP). JAMA 1991;265:3255-3264.
27. Staessen JA, Gasowski J, Wang JG, Thijs L, Den Hond E, Boissel JP, et al: Risks of untreated and treated isolated systolic hypertension in the elderly: meta-analysis of outcome trials. Lancet 2000;355:865-872.
28. Gueyffier F, Bulpitt C, Boissel JP, Schron E, Ekbom T, Fagard R; for the INDANA Group: Antihypertensive drags in very old people: a subgroup meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Lancet 1999;353:793-796.
29. Kjeldsen SE, Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Julius S, Aurup P, Edelman J, et al: LIFE (Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction) Study Group: Effects of losartan on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in patients with isolated systolic hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy: a Losartan Intervention for Endpoint Reduction (LIFE) substudy. JAMA 2002;288:1491-1498.
30. Papademetriou V, Farsang C, Elmfeldt D, Hofman A, Lithell H, Olofsson B, et al: Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly study group. Stroke prevention with the angiotensin II type 1-receptor blocker candesartan in elderly patients with isolated systolic hypertension: the Study on Cognition and Prognosis in the Elderly (SCOPE). J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;44:1175-1180.
31. McAlister FA, Sackett DL: Active-control equivalence trials and antihypertensive agents. Am J Med 2001;111:553-558.
32. Neal B, MacMahon S, Chapman N, for the Blood Pressure Lowering Trialists' Collaboration: Effects of ACE inhibitors, calcium antagonists, and other blood pressure-lowering drags: results of prospectively designed overviews of randomized trials. Lancet 2000;356:1955-1964.
33. Yusuf S, Sleight P, Pogue J, Bosch J, Davis R, Adueñáis G: Effects of an angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitor, ramipril, on cardiovascular events in high-risk patients. N Engl J Med 2000;342:145-153.
34. Dahlof B, Devereux RB, Kjeldsen SE, Julius S, Beevers G, Faire U, et al: The LIFE Study Group. Cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in the losartan intervention for endpoint reduction in hypertension study (LIFE): a randomised trial against atenolol. Lancet 2002;359:995-1003.
35. Lithell H, Hansson L, Skoog I, Elmfeldt D, Hofman A, Olofsson B, et al; for the SCOPE Study Group: The study on cognition and prognosis in the elderly (SCOPE): principal results of a randomized double-blind intervention trial. J Hypertens 2003;21:875-886.
36. Furberg CD, Wright JT, Davis BR, Cutler JA, et al: Major outcomes in high-risk hypertensive patients randomized to angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitor or calcium channel blocker vs. diuretic: the Antihypertensive and Lipid-Lowering Treatment to Prevent Heart Attack Trial (ALLHAT). JAMA 2002;288:2981-2997.
37. Davis BR, Furberg CD, Wright JT Jr, Cutler JA, Whelton P; ALLHAT Collaborative Research Group: ALLHAT: setting the record straight. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:39-46.
38. Wing LMH, Reid CM, Ryan P, Beilin LJ, Brown MA, Jennings GLR, et al; for the Second Australian National Blood Pressure Study Group: A comparison of outcomes with angiotensin-converting-enzyme inhibitors and diuretics for hypertension in the elderly. N Engl J Med 2003;348:583-592.
39. Julius S, Kjeldsen SE, Weber M, Brunner HR, Ekman S, Hansson L, et al: VALUE trial group. Outcomes in hypertensive patients at high cardiovascular risk treated with regimens based on valsartan or amlodipine: the VALUE randomised trial. Lancet 2004;363:2022-2031.
40. Brown MJ, Palmer CR, Castaigne A, de Leeuw PW, Mancia G, Rosenthal T, Ruilope LM: Morbidity and mortality in patients randomised to double-blind treatment with a long-acting calcium-channel blocker or diuretic in the International Nifedipine GITS study: Intervention as a Goal in Hypertension Treatment (INSIGHT). Lancet 2000;356:366-372.
41. Hansson L, Hedner T, Lund-Johansen P, Kjeldsen SE, Lindholm LH, Syvertsen JO, et al: Randomised trial of effects of calcium antagonists compared with diuretics and beta-blockers on cardiovascular morbidity and mortality in hypertension: the Nordic Diltiazem (NORDIL) study. Lancet 2000;356:359-365.
42. Pepine CJ, Handberg-Thurmond E, Marks RG, Conlon M, Cooper-DeHoff R, Volkers P, et al: Rationale and design of the International Verapamil SR/Trandolapril Study (INVEST): an internet-based randomized trial in coronary heart disease patients with hypertension. J Am Coll Cardiol 1998;32:1228-1237.
43. Black HR, Elliott WJ, Grandits G, Grambsch P, Lucente T, White WB, et al: Principal results of the Controlled ON set Verapamil Investigation of Cardiovascular Endpoints (CONVINCE) Trial. JAMA 2003;289:2073-2082.
44. Staessen JA, Wang J-G, Thijs L: Cardiovascular prevention and blood pressure reduction: a quantitative overview updated until 1 March 2003. J Hypertens 2003;21:1055-1076.
45. Psaty BM, Lumley T, Furberg CD, Schellenbaum G, Pahor M, Alderman MH, Weiss NS: Health outcomes associated with various antihypertensive therapies used as first-line agents: a network meta-analysis. JAMA 2003;289:2534-2544.
46. Turnbull F; Blood Pressure Lowering Treatment Trialists' Collaboration: Effects of different blood-pressure-lowering regimens on major cardiovascular events: results of prospectively-designed overviews of randomised trials. Lancet 2003;362:1527-1535.
47. Brewster LM, van Montfrans GA, Kleijnen J: Systematic review: antihypertensive drug therapy in black patients. Ann Intern Med 2004;141:614-627.
48. Hypertension-Stroke Cooperative Study Group: Effect of antihypertensive treatment on stroke recurrence. JAMA 1974;229:409-418.
49. The Dutch TIA Trial Study Group: Trial of secondary prevention with atenolol after transient ischemic attack or nondisabling ischemic stroke. Stroke 1993;24:543-548.
50. Eriksson S, Olofsson BO, Wester PO, for the TEST study group: Atenolol in secondary prevention after stroke. Cerebrovasc Dis 1995;5:21-25.
51. Carter AB: Hypotensive therapy in stroke survivors. Lancet 1970;i:485-489.
52. PATS Collaborating Group: Post-stroke antihypertensive treatment study: a preliminary result. Chin Med J 1995;108:710-717.
53. Gueyffier F, Boissel JP, Boutitie F, Pocock S, Coope J, Cutler J, et al: Effects of antihypertensive treatment in patients having already suffered from stroke. Gathering the evidence. Stroke 1997;28:2557-2562.
54. Randomised Trial of a perindopril-based blood-pressure-lowering regimen among 6105 individuals with previous stroke or transient ischaemic attack. PROGRESS Collaborative Group. Lancet 2001;358:1033-1041.
55. Chapman N, Huxley R, Anderson C, Bousser MG, Chalmers J, Colman S, Davis S, Donnan G, MacMahon S, Neal B, Warlow C, Woodward M: Effects of a perindopril-based blood pressure-lowering regimen on the risk of recurrent stroke according to stroke subtype and medical history. The PROGRESS Trial. Stroke 2004;35:116-121.
56. Bosch J, Yusuf S, Pogue J, Sleight, Lonn E, Rangoonwala B, et al: Use of ramipril in preventing stroke: double-blind randomised trial. Br Med J 2002;324:699-702.
57. Schrader J, Lüders S, Kulschewski A, Hammersen F, Plate K, Berger J, et al; for the MOSES Study Group: Morbidity and mortality after stroke - eprosartan compared with nitrendipine for secondary prevention (MOSES). Principal results of a prospective randomized controlled study. Stroke 2005;36:1218-1224.
58. Adams HP, Adams RJ, Brott T, Zoppo GJ, Furlan A, Goldstein LB, et al: Guidelines for the early management of patients with ischemic stroke: a scientific statement from the Stroke Council of the American Stroke Association. Stroke 2003;34:1056-1083.
59. Leonardi-Bee J, Bath PMW, Phillips SJ, Sandercock PAG: Blood pressure and clinical outcomes in the International Stroke Trial. Stroke 2002;33:1315-1320.
60. Dyker AG, Grosset DG, Lees K: Perindopril reduces blood pressure but not cerebral blood flow in patients with recent cerebral ischemic stroke. Stroke 1997;28:580-583.
61. Schrader J, Luders S, Kulschewski A, Berger J, Zidek W, Treib J, et al: Acute Candesartan Cilexetil Therapy in Stroke Survivors Study Group. The ACCESS Study: evaluation of acute condensation cilexetil therapy in stroke survivors. Stroke 2003;34:1699-1703.
62. Rashid P, Leonardi-Bee J, Bath P: Blood pressure reduction and secondary prevention of stroke and other vascular events: a systematic review. Stroke 2003;34:2741-2748.
63. 3 Skoog I, Lernfelt B, Landahl S, Palmertz B, Andreasson LA, Nilsson L: 15-year longitudinal study of blood pressure and dementia. Lancet 1996;347:1141-1145.
64. De la Torre JC: Alzheimer disease as a vascular disorder. Nosological evidence. Stroke 2002;33:1152-1162.
65. Gil-Núñez AC: New therapeutic approaches in stroke prevention. Rev Neurol 2002;35:801-804.
66. Tatemichi TK, Paik M, Bagiella E, Desmond DW, Stern Y, Sano M, et al: Risk of dementia after stroke in a hospitalized cohort: results of a longitudinal study. Neurology 1994;44:1885-1891.
67. Barba R, Martinez-Espinosa S, Rodriguez-Garcia E, Pondal M, Vivancos J, Del Ser T: Poststroke dementia: clinical features and risk factors. Stroke 2000;31:1494-1501.
68. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Birkenhager WH, Babarskiene MR, et al: Prevention of dementia in randomised double-blind placebo-controlled Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) trial. Lancet 1998;352:1347-1351.
69. Forette F, Seux ML, Staessen JA, Thijs L, Babarskiene MR, Babeanu S, et al: Systolic Hypertension in Europe Investigators. The prevention of dementia with antihypertensive treatment: new evidence from the Systolic Hypertension in Europe (Syst-Eur) study. Arch Intern Med 2002;162:2046-2052.
70. Tzourio C, Anderson C, Chapman N, Woodward M, Neal B, MacMahon S, Chalmers J; PROGRESS Collaborative Group: Effects of blood pressure lowering with perindopril and indapamide therapy on dementia and cognitive decline in patients with cerebrovascular disease. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1069-1075.
71. Perindopril Protection Against Recurrent Stroke Study (PROGRESS) Collaborative Group: Effects of a perindopril-based blood pressure-lowering regimen on disability and dependency in 6105 patients with cerebrovascular disease. A randomized controlled trial. Stroke 2003;34:2333-2338.
72. Rossi GP, Rossi A, Sacchetto A, Pavan E, Pessina AC: Hypertensive cerebrovascular disease and the renin-angiotensin system. Stroke 1995;26:1700-1706.
73. Libby P: Current concepts of the pathogenesis of the acute coronary syndromes. Circulation 2001;104:365-372.
74. Weir MR, Dzau VJ: The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system: a specific target for hypertension management. Am J Hypertens 1999;12:S205-S213.
75. Sowers JR: Hypertension, angiotensin II, and oxidative stress. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1999-2001.
76. Jacoby DS, Rader DJ: Renin-angiotensin system and atherothrombotic disease: from genes to treatment. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1155-1164.
77. Singh BM, Mehta JL: Interactions between the renin-angiotensin system and dyslipidemia: relevance in the therapy of hypertension and coronary heart disease. Arch Intern Med 2003;163:1296-1304.
78. Sokol SI, Portnay EL, Curds JP, Nelson MA, Hebert PR, Setaro JF, Foody JM: Modulation of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system for the secondary prevention of stroke. Neurology 2004;63:208-213.
79. Givertz MM: Manipulation of the renin-angiotensin system. Circulation 2001;104:14-18.
80. Gorelick PB: Stroke prevention therapy beyond antithrombotics: unifying mechanisms in ischemia stroke pathogenesis and implications for therapy. Stroke 2002;33:862-875.
81. Gorelick PB: New horizons for stroke prevention: PROGRESS and HOPE. Lancet Neurology 2002;1:149-156.
82. Fournier A, Messerli FH, Achard JM, Fernandez L: Cerebroprotection mediated by angiotensin II: a hypothesis supported by recent randomized clinical trials. J Am Coll Cardiol 2004;43:1343-1347.
83. García-Donaire JA, Gil Núñez A, Segura J, Ruilope LM: Cerebrovascular protection and antihypertensive therapy. Curr Opin Nephrol Hypertens 2004;13:507-512.
84. The MRC Working Party: The Medical Research Council trial of treatment of hypertension in older adults: principal results. Br Med J 1992;304:405-412.
85. Lonn E, Yusuf S, Dzavik V, Doris C, Yi Q, Smith S, et al: Effects of ramipril and vitamin E on atherosclerosis: the study to evaluate carotid ultrasound changes in patients treated with ramipril and vitamin E (SECURE). Circulation 2001;103:919-925.
86. Zanchetti A, Crepaldi G, Bond MG, Gallus G, Veglia F, Mancia G, et al; on behalf of PHYLLIS Investigators. Different effects of antihypertensive regimens based on fosinopril or hydrochlorothiazide with or without lipid lowering by pravastatin on progression of asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis: principal results of PHYLLIS - a randomized double-blind trial. Stroke 2004;35:2807-2812.
87. Zanchetti A, Agabiti-Rosei E, Dal Palù C, Leonetti G, Magnani B, Pessina A: The Verapamil in Hypertension and Atherosclerosis Study (VHAS): results of long-term randomized treatment with either verapamil or chlorthalidone on carotid intima-media thickness. J Hypertens 1998;16:1667-1676.
88. Simon A, Garie'py J, Moyse D, Levenson J: Differential effects of nifedipine and co-amilozide on the progression of early carotid wall changes. Circulation 2001;103:2949-2954.
89. Zanchetti A, Bond MG, Hennig M, Neiss A, Mancia G, Dal Palù C, et al; on behalf of the ELSA investigators: Calcium antagonist lacidipine slows down progression of asymptomatic carotid atherosclerosis. Principal results of the European Lacidipine Study on Atherosclerosis (ELSA), a randomized, double-blind, long-term trial. Circulation 2002;106:2422-2427.
90. Mason RP, Marche P, Hintze TH: Novel vascular biology of third-generation L-type calcium channel antagonists. Ancillary actions of amlodipine. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol 2003;23:2155-2163.
91. Wienbergen H, Schiele R, Gitt AK, Juenger C, Heer T, Meisenzahl C, et al: MITRA PLUS Study Group. Impact of ramipril versus other angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors on outcome of unselected patients with ST-elevation acute myocardial infarction. Am J Cardiol 2002;90:1045-1049.
92. Hansson L, Zanchetti A, Carruthers SG, Dahlof B, Elhfeldt D, Menard J, et al: Effects of intensive blood-pressure lowering and low-dose aspirin in patients with hypertension: principal results of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) randomised trial. HOT Study Group. Lancet 1998;351:1755-1762.
93. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group: Tight blood pressure control and risk of macrovascular and microvascular complications in type 2 diabetes: UKPDS 38. Br Med J 1998;317:703-713.
94. Estacio RO, Jeffers BW, Hiatt WR, Biggerstaff SL, Gifford N, Schrier RW: The effect of nisoldipine as compared with enalapril on cardiovascular outcomes in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes and hypertension. N Engl J Med 1998;338:645-652.
95. Schrier RW, Estacio RO, Esler A, Mehler P: Effects of aggressive blood pressure control in normotensive type 2 diabetic patients on albuminuria, retinopathy and strokes. Kidney Int 2002;61:1086-1097.
96. Lawes CMM, Bennett DA, Feigin VL, Rodgers A: Blood pressure and stroke: an overview of published reviews. Stroke 2004;35:1024-1033.
97. Sleight P, Yusuf S, Pogue J, Tsuyuki R, Diaz R, Probstfield J; for the Heart Outcomes Prevention Evaluation (HOPE) Study Investigators: Blood-pressure reduction and cardiovascular risk in HOPE study. Lancet 2001;358:2130-2131.
98. Fox KM; European Trial on Reduction of Cardiac Events With Perindopril in Stable Coronary Artery Disease Investigators: Efficacy of perindopril in reduction of cardiovascular events among patients with stable coronary artery disease: randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, multicentre trial (the EUROPA study). Lancet 2003;362:782-788.
99. Nissen SE, Tuzcu EM, Libby P, Thompson PD, Ghali M, Garza D, Bermen L, Shi H, Buebendorf E, Topol EJ; for the CAMELOT Investigators: Effect of antihypertensive agents on cardiovascular events in patients with coronary disease and normal blood pressure. JAMA 2004;292:2217-2225.
100. European Society of Hypertension-European Society of Cardiology Guidelines Committee: 2003 European Society of Hypertension/European Society of Cardiology guidelines for the management of arterial hypertension. J Hypertens 2003;21:1011-1053.
101. Leys D, Kwiecinsky H, Bogousslavsky J, Bath P, Brainin M, Diener HC, et al; for the EUSI Executive Committee and the EUSI Writing Committee: Prevention. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17(suppl 2):15-29.
102. International Society of Hypertension Writing Group: International Society of Hypertension (ISH): statement on blood pressure lowering and stroke prevention. J Hypertens 2003;21:651-663.
103. De Backer G, Ambrosioni E, Borch-Johnsen K, Brotons C, Cifkova R, Dallongeville J, et al; Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice: European guidelines on cardiovascular disease prevention in clinical practice. Third Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention in Clinical Practice. Eur Heart J 2003;24:1601-1610.
104. Brotons C, Royo-Bordonada MA, Alvarez-Sala L, Armario P, Artigao R, Conthe P, et al: Comite Espanol Interdisciplinario para la Prevencion Cardiovascular. Spanish adaptation of the European Guidelines on Cardiovascular Disease Prevention. Neurologia 2004;19:438-439.
105. Williams B, Poulter NR, Brown MJ, Davis M, McInnes GT, Potter JF, Sever PS, Thom SM: British Hypertension Society guidelines for hypertension management 2004 (BHS-IV): summary. Br Med J 2004;328:634-640.
106. Diez Tejedor E, Fuentes B, Gil Núñez AC, Gil Peralta A, Matias Guiu J, por el comité ad hoc del Grupo de Estudio de Enfermedades Cerebrovasculares de la SEN: Guía para el tratamiento preventivo de la isquemia cerebral; in Diez Tejedor E (ed): Guía para el tratamiento y la prevención del ictus. GEECV-SEN. Barcelona, Prous Science, in press.
107. Hennessy S, Kimmel SE: Is improved survival a class effect of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors? Ann Intern Med 2004;141:157-158.
108. Furberg CD, Psaty BM: Should evidence-based proof of drug efficacy be extrapolated to a 'class of agents'? Circulation 2003;108:2608-2610.
109. Unger T: The ongoing telmisartan alone and in combination with ramipril global endpoint trial program. Am J Cardiol 2003;91(suppl):G28-G34.
110. World Health Organization; in World Health Report: Reducing Risk. Promoting Healthy Life. Geneva, World Health Organization, 2002.
111. Instituto Nacional de Estadistica: Defunciones según la causa de muerte 2003. www.ine.es, 30 de Diciembre 2004.
112. Joseph LN, Kase CS, Beiser AS, Wolf PA: Mild blood pressure elevation and stroke: The Framingham study. Stroke 1998;29:277 (abstract).
113. Samsa GP, Bian J, Lipscomb J Matchar DB: Epidemiology of recurrent cerebral infarction: a Medicare claims-based comparison of first and recurrent strokes on 2-year survival and cost. Stroke 1999;30:338-349.
114. Adams RJ, Chimowitz MI, Alpert JS, Awad IA, Cerqueria MD, Fayad P, et al: Coronary risk evaluation in patients with transient ischemic attack and ischemic stroke: a scientific statement for healthcare professionals from the Stroke Council and the Council on Clinical Cardiology of the American Heart Association/American Stroke Association. Stroke 2003;34:2310-2322.
115. Hartmann A, Rundek T, Mast H, Paik MC, Boden-Albala B, Mohr JP, Sacco RL: Mortality and causes of death after first ischemic stroke: the Northern Manhattan Stroke Study. Neurology 2001;57:2000-2005.
116. Rothwell PM, Coull AJ, Giles MF, Howard SC, Silver LE, Bull LM, et al: Oxford Vascular Study. Change in stroke incidence, mortality, case-fatality, severity, and risk factors in Oxfordshire, UK from 1981 to 2004 (Oxford Vascular Study). Lancet 2004;363:1925-1933.
117. Coca Payeras A: Evolución del control de la hipertensión arterial en España. Resultados del estudio Controlares 2001. Hipertensión 2002;19:390-399.
118. Gil-Núñez AC, Vivancos-Mora J, Gabriel R, Nombela-Merchan, for the Cerebrovascular Diseases Study Group for the Spanish Society of Neurology: Assessment of ischemic stroke diagnostic and secondary prevention practices, in Spain. The DIAPRESIC Study. Cerebrovasc Dis 2004;17(suppl 5):52-53.