Structure and culture in African American adolescent violence: A partial test of the "code of the street" thesis

Justice Quarterly

Volumn 23, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 1-33

  Stewart, Eric A ^a,b,c   Simons, Ronald L ^d,e  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MISSOURI ST LOUIS   (United States)

^b National Consortium on Violence Research (NCOVR)   (United States)

^c NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF JUSTICE   (United States)

^d Department of Sociology ^*

^e UNIVERSITY OF GEORGIA   (United States)

Author keywords

Code of street; Neighborhood context; Race; Violence

Indexed keywords

EID: 33644585065     PISSN: 07418825     EISSN: 17459109     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07418820600552378     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. Agnew, R. S. (1992). Foundation for a general strain theory of crime and delinquency. Criminology, 30, 47-66.
2. Akers, R. L. (1998). Social learning and social structure: A general theory of crime and deviance. Boston: Northeastern University Press.
3. Allport, G. (1979). The nature of prejudice. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
4. Anderson, E. (1999). Code of the street: Decency, violence, and the moral life of the inner city. New York: W. W. Norton.
5. Anderson, E. (2002). The ideologically driven critique. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 1533-1550.
6. Arbuckle, J. L., & Wothke, W. (1999). Amos users' guide version 4.0. Chicago: Smallwaters Corporation.
7. Baron, S. W., Kennedy, L. W., & Forde, D. R. (2001). Male street youths' conflict: The role of background, subcultural, and situational factors. Justice Quarterly, 18, 759-789.
8. Baumer, E., Horney, J., Felson, R. B., & Lauritsen, J. L. (2003). Neighborhood disadvantage and the nature of violence. Criminology, 41, 39-72.
9. Baumrind, D. (1991). The influence of parenting style on adolescent competence and substance use. Journal of Early Adolescence, 11, 56-95.
10. Baumrind, D. (1996). Parenting: The discipline controversy revisited. Family Relations, 45, 405-414.
11. Bellair, P. E., Roscigno, V. J., & McNulty, T. L. (2003). Linking local labor market opportunity to violent adolescent delinquency. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 6-33.
12. Belsky, J. (1993). Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental- ecological analysis. Psychological Bulletin 114, 413-434.
13. Berkowitz, L. (1989). Frustration-aggression hypothesis: Examination and reformulation. Psychological Bulletin, 106, 59-73.
14. Bernard, T. J. (1990). Angry aggression among the truly disadvantaged. Criminology, 28, 73-96.
15. Blau, J. R., & Blau, P. M. (1982). The cost of inequality: Metropolitan structure and violent crime. American Sociological Review, 47, 114-129.
16. Brezina, T., Agnew, R., Cullen, F. T., & Wright, J. P. (2004). The code of the street: A quantitative assessment of Elijah Anderson's subculture of violence thesis and its contribution to youth violence research. Youth Violence and Juvenile Justice, 2, 303-328.
17. Bruce, M. A., Roscigno, V. J., & McCall, P. L. (1998). Structure, context, and agency in the reproduction of black-on-black violence. Theoretical Criminology, 2, 29-55.
18. Bursik, R. J., Jr., & Grasmick, H. G. (1993). Economic deprivation and neighborhood crime rates, 1960-1980. Law & Society Review, 27, 263-283.
19. Burton, L. M., & Jarrett, R. L. (2000). In the mix, yet on the margins: The place of families in urban neighborhood and child development research. Journal of Marriage and Family, 63, 114-135.
20. Canada, G. (1995). Fist, stick, knife, gun: A personal history of violence In America. Boston: Beacon Press.
21. Cao, L., Adams, A., & Jensen, V. J. (1997). A test of the black sbculture of violence thesis: A research note. Criminology, 35, 367-379.
22. Capaldi, D., & Patterson, G. R. (1987). An approach to the problem of recruitment and retention rates for longitudinal research. Behavioral Assessment, 9, 169-177.
23. Cernkovich, S. A., 6 Giordano, P. C. (1987). Family relationships and delinquency. Criminology, 25, 295-321.
24. Chaiken, M. R. (2000). Violent neighborhoods, violent kids. Bulletin. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
25. Chesney-Lind, M. (1997). The female offender: Girls, women, and crime. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26. Cloward, R., & Ohlin, L. (1960). Delinquency and opportunity. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
27. Cohen, A. K. (1955). Delinquent boys. Glencoe, IL: Free Press.
28. Cohen, D., & Nisbett, R. E. (1994). Self-protection and the culture of honor: Explaining Southern violence. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 551-567.
29. Colder, C. R., Mott, J., Levy, S., & Flay, B. (2000). The relation of perceived neighborhood danger to childhood aggression: A test of mediating mechanisms. American Journal of Community Psychology, 28, 83-103.
30. Conger, R. D., Cui, M., 6 Bryant, C. M. (2000). Competence in early adult romantic relationships: A developmental perspective on family influences. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 79, 224-237.
31. Conger, R. D., a Elder G. H., Jr. (1994). Families in troubled times. New York: Aldine De Gruyter.
32. Conger, R. D., Patterson, G. R., & Ge, X. (1995). It takes two to replicate: A mediational model for the impact of parents' stress on adolescent adjustment. Child Development, 66, 80-97.
33. Courtwright, D. T. (1996). Violent land: Single men and social disorder from the frontier to the Inner city. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
34. Curtis, L. A. (1975). Violence, race, and culture. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
35. DuBois, W. E. B. (1899; reprinted 1996). The Philadelphia Negro: A social study. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
36. Elliott, D. S. (1994). Serious violent offenders: Onset, developmental course, and termi- nation-The American Society of Criminology 1993 Presidential Address. Criminology, 32, 1-21.
37. Elliott, D. S., Huizinga, D., & Menard, S. (1989). Multiple problem youth: Delinquency, substance use, and mental health problems. New York: Springer.
38. Fagan, J., & Wilkinson, D. L. (1997). Firearms and youth violence. In D. Stoff, J. Brieling, & J. D. Maser (Eds.), Handbook of antisocial behavior. New York: Wiley.
39. Farrington, D. P. (1998). Predictors, causes, and correlates of male youth violence. In M. Tonry & M. H. Moore (Eds.), Crime and justice: A review of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
40. Felson, R. B. (1992). Kick 'em when they're down. The Sociological Quarterly, 33, 1-16.
41. Felson, R. B., & Steadman, H. J. (1983). Situational factors in disputes leading to criminal violence. Criminology, 21, 59-74.
42. Fisher, J. C., & Mason, R. L (1981). The analysis of multicollinear data in criminology. In J. A. Fox (Ed.), Methods in quantitative criminology. New York: Academic Press.
43. Furstenberg, F. F., Cook, T. D., Eccles, J., Elder, G. H., Jr., & Sameroff, A. (1999). Managing to make it: Urban families and adolescent success. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
44. Gibbs, J. T. (1988). Young, black, and male in America: An endangered species. New York: Auburn House.
45. Gottfredson, M., a Hirschi, T. (1990). A general theory of crime. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
46. Gottman, J. M., & Notarius, C. L. (2000). Decade review: Observing marital interaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 927-947.
47. Harer, M. D., & Steffensmeier, D. (1992). The differing effects of economic inequality on black and white rates of violence. Social Forces, 70, 1035-1054.
48. Hawkins, D. F. (2003). Editor's introduction. In D. F. Hawkins (Ed.), Violent crime: Assessing race and ethnic differences. New York: Cambridge University Press.
49. Hawkins, D. F., Laub, J. H., Lauritsen, J. L., & Cothern, L. (2000). Race, ethnicity, and serious and violent juvenile offending. In Juvenile justice bulletin. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
50. Haynie, D. L. (2001). Delinquent peers revisited: Does network structure matter? American Journal of Sociology, 106, 1013-1057.
51. Heimer, K. (1997). Socioeconomic status, subcultural definitions, and violent delinquency. Social Forces, 75, 799-833.
52. Horowitz, R. (1983). Honor and the American dream: Culture and identity in a Chicano community. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press.
53. Jarrett, R. L. (1997). African American children, families, and neighborhoods: Qualitative contributions to understanding developmental pathways. Qualitative Sociology, 20, 275-288.
54. Jencks, C., & Mayer, S. E. (1990). The social consequences of growing up in a poor neighborhood. In L. E. Lynn, Jr. a M. G. H. McGeary (Eds.), Inner-city poverty in the United States. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
55. Katz, J. (1988). Seductions of crime. New York: Basic Books.
56. Kennedy, R. (1997). Race, crime, and the law. New York: Vintage Books.
57. Kornhauser, R. R. (1978). Social sources of delinquency: An appraisal of analytic models. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
58. Krivo, L. J., & Peterson, R. D. (1996). Extremely disadvantaged neighborhoods and urban crime. Social Forces, 75, 619-650.
59. Kubrin, C. E., & Weitzer R. (2003a). Homicide: Concentrated disadvantage and neighborhood culture. Social Problems, 50, 157-180.
60. Kubrin, C. E., & Weitzer R. (2003b). New directions in social disorganization theory. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 40, 374-402.
61. Kuder, G., & Richardson, M. E. (1937). The theory of the estimation of test reliability. Psychometrika, 2, 151-160.
62. LaFree, G., Drass, K. A., & O'Day, P. (1992). Race and crime in postwar America: Determinants of African-American and white rates 1957-1988. Criminology, 30, 157-188.
63. Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). The schedule of racist events: A measure of racial discrimination and a study of its negative physical and mental health consequences. Journal of Black Psychology, 22, 144-168.
64. Lauritsen, J. L. (2001). The social ecology of violent victimization: Individual and contextual effects in the NCVS. Journal of Quantitative Criminolosy, 17, 3-32.
65. Leventhal, T., & Brooks-Gunn, J. (2000). The neighborhoods they live in: The effects of neighborhood residence on child and adolescent outcomes. Psychological Bulletin, 2, 309-337.
66. Loeber, R., & Stouthamer-Loeber, M. (1986). Family factors as correlates and predictors of juvenile conduct problems and delinquency. In M. Tonry & N. Morris (Eds.), Crime and justice: An annual review of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
67. Long, J. S. (1997). Regression models for categorical and limited dependent variables. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
68. Lorenz, F. O., Conger, R. D., Simons, R. L., Whitbeck, L. B., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (1991). Economic pressure and marital quality: An illustration of the method variance problem in the causal modeling of family processes. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 53, 375-388.
69. Luckenbill, D. F. (1977). Criminal homicide as a situated transaction. Social Problems, 25, 176-186.
70. Luckenbill, D. F., & Doyle, D. P. (1989). Structural position and violence: Developing a cultural explanation. Criminology, 27, 801-818.
71. Magura, S. (1975). Is there a subculture of violence? American Sociological Review, 40, 831-835.
72. Majors, R., & Billson, J. M. (1992). Cool pose: The dilemmas of black manhood in America. New York: Touchstone.
73. Markowitz, F. E., & Felson, R. B. (1998). Social-demographic attitudes and violence. Criminology, 36, 117-138.
74. Massey, D. S., & Denton, N. A. (1993). American apartheid: Segregation and the making of the underclass. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
75. Matsueda, R. (1989). The dynamics of moral beliefs and minor deviance. Social Forces, 68, 428-457.
76. Matthews, L. S., Wickrama, K. A. S., & Conger, R. D. (1996). Predicting marital instability from spouse and observer reports of marital interaction. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 55, 641-655.
77. McCord, J., & Ensminger, M. E. (2003). Racial discrimination and violence: A longitudinal perspective. In D. F. Hawkins (Ed.), Violent crime: Assessing race and ethnic differences. New York: Cambridge University Press.
78. McNulty, T. L., & Bellair, P. E. (2003). Explaining racial and ethnic differences in adolescent violence: Structural disadvantage, family well-being, and social capital. Justice Quarterly, 20, 1-31.
79. Melby, J., Conger, R. D., Book, R., Rueter, M., Lucy, L., Repinski, D., Rogers, S., Rogers, B., & Scaramella, L. (1998). Iowa Family Interaction Rating Scales. Ames, IA: Iowa Youth and Families Project.
80. Messner, S. F., & Rosenfeld, R. (1997). Crime and the American dream (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Wadsworth.
81. Miller, J. (1998). Up it up: Gender and the accomplishment of street robbery. Criminology, 36, 37-66.
82. Miller, W. B. (1958). Lower class culture as a generating milieu of gang delinquency. Journal of Social Issues, 14, 5-19.
83. Moore, M. H., & Tonry, M. (1998). Youth violence In America. In M. Tonry & M. H. Moore (Eds.), Crime and justice: A review of research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
84. Nisbett, R. E., & Cohen, D. (1996). Culture and honor: The psychology of violence in the South. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
85. Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention. (1999). Report to Congress on juvenile violence research. Washington, DC: US Department of Justice, Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention.
86. Oliver, W. (1994). The violent social world of black men. New York: Lexington Books.
87. Ousey, G. C. (1999). Homicide, structural factors, and the racial invariance assumption. Criminology, 37, 405-426.
88. Parker, K. F., & McCall, P. L. (1999). Structural conditions and racial homicide patterns: A look and the multiple disadvantages in urban areas. Criminology, 37, 447-478.
89. Paternoster, R., Brame, R., Mazerolle, P., & Piquera, A. (1998). Using the correct statistical test for the equality of regression coefficients. Criminology, 36, 859-866.
90. Patterson, G. R., Reid, J., & Dishion, T. J. (1992). Antisocial boys. Eugene, OR: Castalia.
91. Pattillo, M. E. (1998). Sweet mothers and gangbangers: Managing crime in a black middle-class neighborhood. Social Forces, 76, 747-774.
92. Phillips, J. A. (1997). Variation in African-American homicide rates: An assessment of potential explanations. Criminology, 35, 527-559.
93. Prothrow-Stith, D. (1991). Deadly consequences: How violence is destroying our teenage population and a plan to begin solving the problem. New York: HarperCollins.
94. Reiss, A. J., & Roth, J. A. (1993). Understanding and preventing violence. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
95. Sampson, R. J. (1987). Urban black violence: The effect of male joblessness and family disruption. American Journal of Sociology, 93, 348-382.
96. Sampson, R. J., & Bartusch, D. J. (1998). Legal cynicism and (subcultural?) tolerance of deviance: The neighborhood context of racial differences. Law & Society Review, 32, 777-804.
97. Sampson, R. J., & Laub, J. H. (1993). Crime in the making: Pathways and turning points through life. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
98. Sampson, R. J., & Raudenbush, S. (1999). Systematic social observation of public spaces: A new look at disorder in urban neighborhoods. American Journal of Sociology, 105, 603-651.
99. Sampson, R. J., Raudenbush, S. W., & Earls, F. (1997). Neighborhoods and violent crime: A multilevel study of collective efficacy. Science, 277, 918-924.
100. Sampson, R. J., & Wilson, W. J. (1995). Toward a theory of race, crime, and urban inequality. In J. Hagan & R. D. Peterson (Eds.), Crime and inequality. Stanford, CA: Standard University Press.
101. Scaramella, L. V., Conger, R. D., Simons, R. L., a Whitbeck, L. B. (1998). Predicting risk for pregnancy by late adolescence: A social contextual perspective. Developmental Psychology, 34, 1233-1245.
102. Shihadeh, E. S., & Ousey, G. C. (1998). Industrial restructuring and violence: The link between entry-level jobs, economic deprivation, and black and white homicide. Social Forces, 77, 185-206.
103. Simons, R. L., Chen, Y.-F., Stewart, E. A., & Brody, G. H. (2003). Incidents of discrimination and risk for delinquency: A longitudinal test of strain theory with an African American sample. Justice Quarterly, 20, 827-854.
104. Simons, R. L., Johnson, C., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (1998). A test of latent trait versus life-course perspectives on the stability of adolescent antisocial behavior. Criminology, 36, 217-244.
105. Simons, R. L., Stewart, E. A., Gordon, L., Conger, R. D., & Elder, G. H., Jr. (2002). Explaining stability and change in antisocial behavior from adolescence to young adulthood. Criminology, 40, 401-434.
106. Simons, R. L., Wu, C., Conger, R. D., & Lorenz, F. O. (1994). Two routes to delinquency: Differences between early and late starters in the impact of parenting and deviant peers. Criminology, 32, 247-276.
107. Stark, R. (1987). Deviant places: A theory of the ecology of crime. Criminology, 25, 893-909.
108. StataCorp. (1999). STATA user's guide, version 6. College Station, TX: Stata Press.
109. Stewart, E. A., Simons, R. L., Conger, R. D., & Scaramella, L. V. (2002). Beyond the interactional relationship between delinquency and parenting practices: The contribution of legal sanctions. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 39, 36-59.
110. Sullivan, M. I. (1989). "Getting paid": Youth crime and work in the inner city. New York: Cornell University Press.
111. Taylor, R. B., & Covington, J. (1988). Neighborhood changes in ecology and violence. Criminology, 26, 553-589.
112. Tedeschi, J., & Felson, R. B. (1994). Violence, aggression, and coercive action. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
113. Vélez, M. B. (2001). The role of public social control In urban neighborhoods: A multilevel analysis of victimization risk. Criminology, 39, 837-864.
114. Wacquant, L. (2002). Scrutinizing the street: Poverty, morality, and the pitfalls of urban ethnography. American Journal of Sociology, 107, 1468-1532.
115. Warner, B. D. (2003). The role of attenuated culture in social disorganization theory. Criminology, 41, 73-98.
116. Weitzer, R. (1999). Citizen's perceptions of police misconduct: Race and neighborhood context. Justice Quarterly, 16, 819-846.
117. Wilkinson, D. L. (2003). Guns, violence, and identity among African American and Latino youth. New York: LFB Scholarly Publishing.
118. Wilson, W. J. (1987). The truly disadvantaged: The inner city, the underclass, and public policy. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
119. Wilson, W. J. (1996). When work disappears: The world of the new urban poor. New York: Random House.
120. Wolfgang, M. E., & Ferracuti, F. (1967). The subculture of violence: Towards an integrated theory of criminology. London: Tavistock.