An integrative approach to the neurophysiological substrates of social withdrawal and aggression

Development and Psychopathology

Volumn 16, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 69-93

  Lopez, Nestor L ^a   Vazquez, Delia M ^a   Olson, Sheryl L ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AFFECT; AGGRESSION; AMYGDALOID NUCLEUS; CHILD BEHAVIOR; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; LIMBIC SYSTEM; NEUROPHYSIOLOGY; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PSYCHOSOCIAL WITHDRAWAL; REVIEW; ADRENAL GLAND; ARTICLE; CHILD; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITIVE DEFECT; HISTOLOGY; HYPOPHYSIS ADRENAL SYSTEM; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; METABOLISM; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TEST; PSYCHOLOGICAL ASPECT; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL ISOLATION;

HYDROCORTISONE;

ADRENAL GLANDS; AGGRESSION; AMYGDALA; CHILD; CHILD BEHAVIOR; CHILD DEVELOPMENT; COGNITION DISORDERS; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; HYPOTHALAMO-HYPOPHYSEAL SYSTEM; LIMBIC SYSTEM; NEUROPSYCHOLOGICAL TESTS; PITUITARY-ADRENAL SYSTEM; PREFRONTAL CORTEX; PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORY; SOCIAL ALIENATION;

EID: 3342996058     PISSN: 09545794     EISSN: 14692198     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0954579404044414     Document Type: Review

References (111)

1. Adolphs, R., Tranel, D., Hamann, S., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., Phelps, E. A., Anderson, A., Lee, G. P., & Damasio, A. R. (1999). Recognition of facial emotion in nine individuals with bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1111-1117.
2. Afifi, A., & Bergman, R. (1998). Functional neuroanatomy. New York: McGraw-Hill.
3. Aggleton, J. P., & Passingham, R. E. (1981). Syndrome produced by lesions of the amygdala in monkeys (Macaco mulatta). Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology, 95, 961-977.
4. Amaral, D. G. (2002). The primate amygdala and the neurobiology of social behavior: Implications for understanding social anxiety. Biological Psychiatry, 51, 11-17.
5. Anderson, N. B. (1997). Integrating behavioral and social sciences research at the National Institutes of Health, U.S.A. Social Science and Medicine, 44, 1067-1071.
6. Anderson, N. B., & Scott, P. A. (1999). Making the case for psychophysiology in an era of molecular biology. Psychophysiology, 36, 1-13.
7. Anisman, H., Zaharia, M. D., Meaney, M. J., & Merali, Z. (1998). Do early-life events permanently alter behavioral and hormonal responses to stressors? International Journal of Developmental Neuwscience, 16, 149-164.
8. Bechara, A., Tranel, D., Damasio, H., & Damasio, A. R. (1996). Failure to respond autonomically to anticipated future outcomes following damage to prefrontal cortex. Cerebral Cortex, 6, 215-225.
9. Bernhardt, P. C. (1997). Influences of serotonin and testosterone in agression and dominance: Convergence with social psychology. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 6, 44-48.
10. Booth, A., Carver, K., & Granger, D. A. (2000). Biosocial perspectives on the family. Journal of Marriage and the Family, 62, 1018-1034.
11. Boucsein, K., Weniger, G., Mursch, K., Steinhoff, B. J., & Irle, E. (2001). Amygdala lesion in temporal lobe epilepsy subjects impairs associative learning of emotional facial expressions. Neuropsychologia, 39, 231-236.
12. Bradley, S. J. (2000). Affect regulation and the development of psychopathology. New York: Guilford Press.
13. Calder, A. J., Young, A. W., Rowland, D., Perrett, D. I., Hodges, J. R., & Etcoff, N. L. (1996). Facial emotion recognition after bilateral amygdala damage: Differentially severe impairment of fear. Cognitive Neuropsychology, 13, 699-745.
14. Caldji, C., Francis, D., Sharma, S., Plotsky, P. M., & Meaney, M. J. (2000). The effects of early rearing environment on the development of GABA-sub(A) and central benzodiazepine receptor levels and novelty-induced fearfulness in the rat. Neuropsychopharmacology, 22, 219-229.
15. Checkley, S. (1996). The neuroendocrinology of depression. International Review of Psychiatry, 8, 373-378.
16. Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001a). Diverse patterns of neuroendocrine activity in maltreated children. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 677-693.
17. Cicchetti, D., & Rogosch, F. A. (2001b). The impact of child maltreatment and psychopathology on neuroendocrine functioning. Development and Psychopathology, 13, 783-804.
18. Cleare, A. J., & Bond, A. J. (1997). Does central serotonergic function correlate inversely with aggression? A study using d-fenfluramine in healthy subjects. Psychiatry Research, 69, 89-95.
19. Cleare, A. J., & Bond, A. J. (2000). Ipsapirone challenge in aggressive men shows and inverse correlation between 5-HT-sub(1A) receptor function and aggression. Psychopharmacology, 148, 344-349.
20. Cole, P. M., Michel, M. K., & Teti, L. O. (1994). The development of emotion regulation and dysregulation: A clinical perspective. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 73-100.
21. Dallman, M. F., Akana, S. A., & Scriber, K. A. (1991). Mortyn Jones Memorial Lecture: Stress, feedback and facilitation in the hypothalamo- pituitary-adrenal axis. Journal of Neuroendocrinology, 4, 517-526.
22. Davidson, R. J. (1993). Cerebral asymmetry and emotion: Conceptual and methodological conundrums. Cognition and Emotion, 7, 115-138.
23. Davidson, R. J., & Fox, N. A. (1989). Frontal brain asymmetry predicts infant's response to maternal separation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 98, 127-131.
24. Davidson, R. J., Ekman, P., Saron, C., Senulis, J., & Friesen, W. V. (1990). Emotional expression and brain physiology I: Approach/withdrawal and cerebral asymmetry. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 330-341.
25. Davidson, R. J., & Irwin, W. (1999). The functional neuroanatomy of emotion and affective style. Trends in Cognitive Neurosciences, 3, 11-21.
26. Davidson, R. J., Jackson, D. C., & Kalin, N. H. (2000). Emotion, plasticity, context, and regulation: Perspectives from affective neuroscience. Psychological Bulletin, 126, 890-909.
27. Davis, E. P., Donzella, B., Krueger, W. K., & Gunnar, M. R. (1999). The start of a new school year: Individual differences in salivary cortisol response in relation to child temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 188-196.
28. de Haan, M., Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., Hart, J., & Stansbury, K. (1998). Familiar and novel contexts yield different associations between cortisol and behavior among 2-year-old children. Developmental Psychobiology, 33, 93-101.
29. de Kloet, E. R. (1991). Brain corticosteroid receptor balance and homeostatic control. Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, 12, 95-164.
30. Dettling, A. C., Gunnar, M. R., & Donzella, B. (1999). Cortisol levies of young children in full-day childcare centers: Relations with age and temperament. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 24, 519-536.
31. Dodge, K. A., & Coie, J. D. (1987). Social-information-processing factors in reactive and proactive aggression in children's peer groups. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53, 1146-1158.
32. Dodge, K., Lochman, J., Harnish, J., Bates, J., & Petit, G. (1997). Reactive and proactive aggression in school children and psychiatrically impaired chronically assaultive youth. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 106, 37-51.
33. Donzella, B., Gunnar, M. R., & Krueger, W. K. (2000). Cortisol and vagal tone responses to competitive challenge in preschoolers: Associations with temperament. Developmental Psychobiology, 37(4).
34. Eisenberg, N., Cumberland, A., Spinrad, T. L., Fabes, R. A., Shepard, S. A., Reiser, M., Murphy, B. C., Losoya, S. H., & Guthrie, I. K. (2001). The relations of regulation and emotionality to children's externalizing and internalizing problem behavior. Child Development, 72, 112-134.
35. Engel, S. R., & Grant K. A. (2001). Neurosteroids and behavior. International Review of Neurobiology, 46, 321-348.
36. Feldman, S., Conforti, N., & Siegel, R. A. (1982). Adrenocortical responses following limbic stimulation in rats with hypothalamic deafferentations. Neuroendocrinology, 35, 205-211.
37. Feldman, S., Conforti, N., & Weidenfeld, J. (1995). Limbic pathways and hypothalamic neurotransmitters mediating adrenocortical responses to neural stimuli. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 19, 235-240.
38. Fox, N. A. (1994). Dynamic cerebral processes underlying emotion regulation. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 250-283.
39. Fox, N. A., Bell, M. A., & Jones, N. A. (1992). Individual differences in response to stress and cerebral asymmetry. Developmental Neuropsychology, 8, 161-184.
40. Fox, N. A., Calkins, S. D., & Bell, M. A. (1994). Neural plasticity and development in the first two years of life: Evidence from cognitive and socioemotional domains of research. Development and Psychopathology, 6, 677-696.
41. Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., Calkins, S. D., Marshall, T. R., Coplan, R. J., Porges, S. W., & Long, J. (1995). Frontal activation asymmetry and social competence at four years of age: Left frontal hyper and hypo activation as correlates of social behavior in preschool children. Child Development, 66, 1770-1784.
42. Fox, N. A., Schmidt, L. A., Calkins, S. D., & Rubin, K. H. (1996). The role of frontal activation in the regulation and dysregulation of social behavior during the preschool years. Development and Psychopathology, 8, 89-102.
43. Gainotti, G. (1972). Emotional behavior and hemispheric side of the lesion. Cortex, 8, 41-55.
44. Gerra, G., Avanzini, P., Zaimovic, A., Sartori, R., Bocchi, C., Timpano, M., Zambelli, U., Delsignore, R., Gardini, F., Talarico, E., & Brambilla, F. (1999). Neurotransmitters, neuroendocrine correlates of sensation-seeking temperament in normal humans. Neuropsychobiology, 39, 207-213.
45. Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Avanzini, P., Chittolini, B., Giucastro, G., Caccavari, R., Palladino, M., Maestri, D., Monica, C., Delsignore, R., & Brambilla, F. (1997). Neurotransmitter-neuroendocrine responses to experimentally induced aggression in humans: Influence of personality variable. Psychiatry Research, 66, 33-43.
46. Gerra, G., Zaimovic, A., Timpano, M., Zambelli, U., Delsignore, R., & Brambilla, F. (2000). Neuroendocrine correlates of temperamental traits in humans. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 479-496.
47. Gewirtz, J. C., Falls, W. A., & Davis, M. (1997). Normal conditioning inhibition and extinction of freezing and fear-potentiated startle following electrolytic lesions of medial prefrontal cortex in rats. Behavioral Neuroscience, 111, 712-126.
48. Gladue, B. A. (1991). Aggressive behavioral characteristics, hormones, and sexual orientation in men and women. Aggressive Behavior, 17, 313-326.
49. Goldstein, L. E., Rasmusson, A. M., Bunney, B. S., & Roth, R. H. (1996). Role of the amygdala in the coordination of behavioral, neuroendocrine, and prefrontal cortical monoamine responses to psychological stress in the rat. Journal of Neuroscience, 16, 4787-4797.
50. Guerra, N. G., Nucci, L., & Huesmann, L. R. (1994). Moral cognition and childhood aggression. In L. R. Huesmann (Ed.), Aggressive behavior: Current perspectives (pp. 13-33). New York: Plenum Press.
51. Gunnar, M. R. (1994). Psychoendocrine studies of temperament and stress in early childhood: Expanding current models. In J. E. Bates & T. D. Wachs (Eds.), Temperament: Individual differences at the interface of biology and behavior (pp. 175-198). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
52. Gunnar, M. R. (2001). The role of glucocorticoids in anxiety disorders: A critical analysis. In Anonymous (Ed.), The developmental psychopathology of anxiety. New York: Oxford University Press.
53. Gunnar, M. R., Tout, K., de Haan, M., & Pierce, S. (1997). Temperament, social competence, and adrenocortical activity in preschoolers. Developmental Psychobiology, 31, 65-85.
54. Hamann, S. B., & Adolphs, R. (1999). Normal recognition of emotional similarity between facial expressions following bilateral amygdala damage. Neuropsychologia, 37, 1135-1141.
55. Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Bonsall, R., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2001). Altered pituitary-adrenal axis responses to provocative challenge tests in adult survivors of childhood abuse. American Journal of Psychiatry, 158, 575-581.
56. Heim, C., Newport, D. J., Heit, S., Graham, Y. P., Wilcox, M., Bonsall, R., Miller, A. H., & Nemeroff, C. B. (2000). Pituitary-adrenal and autonomic responses to stress in women after sexual and physical abuse in childhood. Journal of the American Medical Association, 284, 592-597.
57. Heim, C., Ehlert, U., & Hellhammer, D. H. (2000). The potential role of hypocortisolism in the pathophysiology of stress-related bodily disorders. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 1-35.
58. Heuser, I., Deuschle, M., Weber, B., Stalla, G. K., & Holsboer, F. (2000). Increased activity of the hypothalamus-pituitary-adrenal system after treatment with mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 25, 513-518.
59. Huot, R. L., Thrivikraman, K. V., Meaney, M. J., & Plotsky, P. M. (2001). Development of adult ethanol preference and anxiety as a consequence of neonatal maternal separation in Long Evans rats and reversal with antidepressant treatment. Psychopharmacology, 158, 366-373.
60. Johnson, E. O., Kamilaris, T. C., Chrousos, G. P., & Gold, P. W. (1992). Mechanisms of stress: A dynamic overview of hormonal and behavioral homeostasis. Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews, 16, 115-130.
61. Kabbaj, M., Devine, D. P., Savage, V. R., & Akil, H. (2000). Neurobiological correlates of individual differences in novelty-seeking behavior in the rat: Differential expression of stress-related molecules. Journal of Neuroscience, 20, 6983-6988.
62. Kabbaj, M., Piazza, P., Le Moal, M., & Maccari, S. (1996). Individual differences in the noradrenergic regulation of hippocampal corticosteroid receptors. Society for Neuroscience Abstracts, 22, 18.
63. Kagan, J. (1989). Temperamental contributions to social behavior. American Psychologist, 44, 668-674.
64. Kagan, J. (1994). On the nature of emotion. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 250-283.
65. Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Snidman, N. (1988). The physiology and psychology of behavioral inhibition in children. Annual Progress in Child Psychiatry and Child Development, viii(686), 102-127.
66. Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., Snidman, N., & Gibbons, J. (1988). Childhood derivatives of inhibition and lack of inhibition to the unfamiliar. Child Development, 59, 1580-1589.
67. Kalin, N. H. (1999a). Primate models and aggression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry Monograph Series, 17(2), 22-24.
68. Kalin, N. H. (1999b). Primate models to understand human aggression. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 60(15), 29-32.
69. Kalin, N. H., Larson, C., Shelton, S. E., & Davidson, R. J. (1998). Asymmetric frontal brain activity, cortisol, and behavior associated with fearful temperament in rhesus monkeys. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 286-292.
70. Kalin, N. H., Shelton, S. E., Davidson, R. J., & Kelley, A. E. (2001). The primate amygdala mediates acute fear but not the behavioral and physiological components of anxious temperament. Journal of Neuroscience, 21, 2067-2074.
71. Kochanska, G. (1993). Toward a synthesis of parental socialization and child temperament in early development of conscience. Child Development, 64, 325-347.
72. Kochanska, G. (1994). Beyond cognition: Expanding the search for the early roots of internalization and conscience. Developmental Psychology, 30, 20-22.
73. Kochanska, G. (1995). Children's temperament, mother's discipline, and security of attachment: Multiple pathways to emerging internalization. Child Development, 66, 597-615.
74. Kochanska, G. (1997). Multiple pathways to conscience for children with different temperaments: From toddlerhood to age 5. Developmental Psychology, 33, 228-240.
75. Kolb, B., Gibb, R., & Gorny, G. (2001). Cortical plasticity and the development of behavior after early frontal cortical injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 18, 423-444.
76. Kruesi, M. J., Schmidt, M. E., Donnelly, M., Hibbs, E. D., & Hamburger, H. D. (1989). Urinary free cortisol output and disruptive behavior in children. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 28, 441-443.
77. Maccari, S., Piazza, P. V., Deminiere, J. M., & Angelucci, L. (1991). Hippocampal type I and type II corticosteroid receptor affinities are reduced in rats predisposed to develop amphetamine self-administration. Brain Research, 548, 305-309.
78. McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Frick, P. J., Risch, C., Loeber, R., Hart, E. L., Christ, M. A. G., & Hanson, K. S. (1991). Anxiety, inhibition, and conduct disorder in children: II. Relation to salivary cortisol. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 197-201.
79. McBurnett, K., Lahey, B. B., Rathouz, P. J., & Loeber, R. (2000). Low salivary cortisol and persistent aggression in boys referred for disruptive behavior. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 38-43.
80. Meaney, M. J. (1985a). Early postnatal handling alters glucocorticoid receptor concentrations in selected brain regions. Behavioral Neuroscience, 99, 765-770.
81. Meaney, M. J. (1985b). The effects of postnatal handling on the development of the glucocorticoid receptor systems and stress recovery in the rat. Progress in NeuroPsychopharmacology and Biological Psychiatry, 9, 731-734.
82. Meaney, M. J., & Stewart, J. (1981). A descriptive study of social development in the rat (Rattus norvegicus). Animal Behaviour, 29, 34-45.
83. Morgan, M. A., Romanski, L. M., & LeDoux, J. E. (1993). Extinction of emotional learning: Contribution of medial prefrontal cortex. Neuroscience Letters, 163, 109-113.
84. Morris, J. S., Frith, C. D., Perrett, D. I., & Rowland, D. (1996). A differentialneural response in the human amygdala to fearful and happy facial expressions. Nature, 383(6603), 812-815.
85. Morris, P. L. P., Robinson, R. G., Raphael, B., & Hopwood, M. J. (1996). Lesion location and poststroke depression. Journal of Neuropsychiatry and Clinical Neurosciences, 8, 399-403.
86. Oitzl, M. S., van Haarst, A. D., & de Kloet, E. R. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses controlled by the concerted action of central mineralocorticoid (MRs) and glucocorticoid receptors (GRs). Psychoneuroendocrinology, 22, s87-s93.
87. Phillips, M. L., Young, A. W., Senior, C., Brammer, M., Andrews, C., Calder, A. J., Bullmore, E. T., Perrett, D. I., Rowland, D., Williams, S. C. R., Gray, J. A., & David, A. S. (1997). A specific neural substrate for perceiving facial expressions of disgust. Nature, 389(6650), 495-498.
88. Piazza, P. V., Deroche, V., Deminiere, J. M., Maccari, S., Le Moal, M., & Simon, H. (1993). Cortisosterone in the range of stress induced levels possess reinforcing properties: Implications for sensation seeking behaviors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 90, 11738-11742.
89. Rauch, S. L., van der Kolk, B. A., Fisler, R. E., & Alpert, N. M. (1996). A symptom provocation study of posttraumatic stress disorder using positron emission tomography and script-driven imagery. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 380-387.
90. Robinson, J. L., Kagan, J., Reznick, J. S., & Corley, R. (1992). The heritability of inhibited and uninhibited behavior: A twin study. Developmental Psychology, 28, 1030-1037.
91. Rosen, J. B., Hamerman, E., Sitcoske, M., Glowa, J. R., & Schulkin, J. (1996). Hyperexcitability: Exaggerated fear-potentiated startle produced by partial amygdala kindling. Behavioral Neuroscience, 110, 43-50.
92. Rubin, K. H., Coplan, R. J., Fox, N. A., & Calkins, S. D. (1995). Emotionality, emotion regulation, and preschoolers' social adaptation. Development and Psychopathology, 7, 49-62.
93. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Rubin, K. H., & Sternberg, E. M. (1997). Behavioral and neuroendocrine responses in shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 30, 127-140.
94. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Schulkin, J., & Gold, P. W. (1999). Behavioral and psychophysiological correlates of self-presentation in temperamentally shy children. Developmental Psychobiology, 35, 119-135.
95. Schmidt, L. A., Fox, N. A., Sternberg, E. M., Gold, P. W. Smith, C. C., & Schulkin, J. (1999). Adrenocortical reactivity and social competence in seven year-olds. Personality and Individual Differences, 26, 977-985.
96. Schulz, K., Halperin, J. M., Newcorn, J. H., Sharma, V., & Gabriel, S. (1997). Plasma cortisol and aggression in boys with ADHD. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 605-609.
97. Scott, S. K., Young, A. W., Calder, A. J., Hellawell, D. J., Agglenton, J. P., & Johnsons, M. (1997). Impaired auditory recognition of fear and anger following bilateral amygdala lesions. Nature, 385, 254-257.
98. Shields, A., & Cicchetti, D. (2001). Parental maltreatment and emotion dysregulation as risk factors for bullying and victimization in middle childhood. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 30, 349-363.
99. Strohle A., Poettig, M., Barden, N., Holsboer, F., & Montkowski, A. (1998). Age and stimulus-dependent changes in anxiety-related behavior of transgenic mice with GR dysfunction. NeuroReport, 9, 2099-2102.
100. Tennes, K., Downey, K., & Vernadakis, A. (1997). Urinary cortisol excretion rates and anxiety in normal 1-year-old infants. Psychosomatic Medicine, 39, 178-187.
101. Tennes, K., & Kreye, M. (1985). Children's adrenocortical responses to classroom activities and tests in elementary school. Psychosomatic Medicine, 47, 451-460.
102. Tennes, K., Kreye, M., Avitable, N., & Wells, R. (1986). Behavioral correlates of excreted catecholamines and cortisol in second-grade children. Journal of the American Academy of Child Psychiatry, 25, 764-770.
103. Thompson, R. A. (1994). Emotion regulation: A theme in search of definition. Monographs of the Society for Research in Child Development, 59(2-3), 250-283.
104. Tobin, J. P. (2001). Post traumatic stress disorder and the adrenal gland. Irish Journal of Psychological Medicine, 18, 27-29.
105. Van de Kar, L., Piechowski, R. A., Rittenhouse, P. A., & Gray, T. S. (1991). Amygdaloid lesions: Differential effect on conditioned stress and immobilization-induced increases in corticosterine and renin secretion. Neuroendocrinology, 54, 89-95.
106. Van Goozen, S., Frijda, N., & Van de Poll, N. (1994). Anger and aggression in women: Influence of sports choice and testosterone administration. Aggressive Behavior, 20, 213-222.
107. Van Goozen, S. H. M., Matthys, W., Cohen-Kettenis, P. T., Thijssen, J. H. H., & van Engeland, H. (1998). Adrenal androgens and aggression in conduct disorder prepubertal boys and normal controls. Biological Psychiatry, 43, 156-158.
108. Vanyukov, M. M., Moss, H. B., Plail, J. A., Blackson, T. B., Mezzich, A. C., & Tarter, R. E. (1993). Antisocial symptoms in preadolescent boys and in their parents: Associations with cortisol. Psychiatry Research, 46, 9-17.
109. Vazquez, D. M. (1998). Stress and the developing limbic-hypothalamic- pituitary-adrenal axis. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 23, 663-700.
110. ver Ellen, P., & Van Kammen, D. P. (1990). The biological findings in post-traumatic stress disorder: A review. Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 20, 1789-1821.
111. Wittling, W., & Genzel, S. (1995). Brain asymmetries in cerebral regulation of cortisol secretion. Homeostasis in Health and Disease, 36, 1-5.