Children's exposure to environmental pollutants and biomarkers of genetic damage: II. Results of a comprehensive literature search and meta-analysis

Mutation Research - Reviews in Mutation Research

Volumn 612, Issue 1, 2006, Pages 14-39

  Neri, Monica ^a,b   Ugolini, Donatella ^a,c   Bonassi, Stefano ^a   Fucic, Alexandra ^d   Holland, Nina ^e   Knudsen, Lisbeth E ^b   Šrám, Radìm J ^f   Ceppi, Marcello ^a   Bocchini, Vittorio ^a   Merlo, Domenico Franco ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

^b UNIVERSITY OF COPENHAGEN   (Denmark)

^c UNIVERSITY OF GENOA   (Italy)

^d INSTITUTE FOR MEDICAL RESEARCH AND OCCUPATIONAL HEALTH   (Croatia)

^e UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^f INSTITUTE OF EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE   (Czech Republic)

Author keywords

Biological markers; Child welfare; DNA damage; Environmental pollution; Meta analysis; Molecular epidemiology; Review

Indexed keywords

ALBUMIN; BIOLOGICAL MARKER; DNA; GLYCOPHORIN A; HEMOGLOBIN; HYPOXANTHINE PHOSPHORIBOSYLTRANSFERASE; POLYCYCLIC AROMATIC HYDROCARBON; TOBACCO SMOKE;

AIR POLLUTANT; CANCER RISK; CHILD HEALTH; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMET ASSAY; DNA ADDUCT; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; FETUS OUTCOME; GENE MUTATION; GENETIC DAMAGE; GENOTOXICITY; HUMAN; LUNG CANCER; META ANALYSIS; MICRONUCLEUS; PERINATAL PERIOD; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SISTER CHROMATID EXCHANGE; SOIL POLLUTANT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; UMBILICAL CORD BLOOD; WATER POLLUTANT;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; BIOLOGICAL MARKERS; CARCINOGENS; CHILD; CHILD, PRESCHOOL; CHROMOSOME ABERRATIONS; COMET ASSAY; DATABASES, FACTUAL; DNA ADDUCTS; DNA DAMAGE; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTANTS; FEMALE; HUMANS; HYPOXANTHINE PHOSPHORIBOSYLTRANSFERASE; INFANT; INFANT, NEWBORN; MALE; POLYCYCLIC HYDROCARBONS, AROMATIC; PREGNANCY; SISTER CHROMATID EXCHANGE; SMOKING;

NICOTIANA TABACUM;

EID: 29844458539     PISSN: 13835742     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mrrev.2005.04.003     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. CHILDRENGENONETWORK, Available from: URL: http://www.pubhealth.ku.dk/cgn/ .
2. G.V. Glass Primary, secondary and meta-analysis of research Educ. Res. 5 1976 3 8
3. D.L. Weed Methodologic guidelines for review papers J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89 1997 6 7
4. E. Taioli, and S. Bonassi Methodological issues in pooled analysis of biomarkers studies Mutat. Res. 544 2002 85 92
5. R. DerSimonian, and N. Laird Meta-analysis in clinical trials Contr. Clin. Trials 7 1986 177 188
6. StataCorp. Stata Statistical Software: Release 7.0 Stata Corporation, College Station, Texas, 1999.
7. NAS (National Academy of Sciences) Pesticides in the Diets of Infants and Children 1993 National Academy Press Washington DC
8. L.M. Anderson, B.A. Diwan, N.T. Fear, and E. Roman Critical windows of exposure for children's health: cancer in human epidemiological studies and neoplasms in experimental animal models Environ. Health Perspect. 109 2001 573 594
9. C.P. Wild, and J. Kleinjans Children and increased susceptibility to environmental Carcinogenesis: evidence or empathy? Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 12 2003 1384 1389
10. V.K. Srivastava, S.S. Chauhan, P.K. Srivastava, V. Kumar, and U.K. Misra Fetal translocation and metabolism of PAH obtained from coal fly ash given intratracheally to pregnant rats J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 18 3 1986 459 469
11. D. Neubert, and S. Tapken Transfer of benzo(a)pyrene into mouse embryos and fetuses Arch. Toxicol. 62 1988 236 239
12. J.R. Whitye, J. Shedden, F.C. Law, and S. Abedini Distribution of benzo(a)pyrene in pregnant rats following inhalation exposure and a comparison with similar data obtained with pyrene J. Appl. Toxicol. 13 1989 193 202
13. R.J. Šrám, B. Binková, P. Rössner, J. Rubeš, J. Topinka, and J. Dejmek Adverse reproductive outcomes from exposure to environmental mutagens Mutat. Res. 428 1999 203 215
14. J.R. Lazutka, R. Lekevičius, V. Dedonyte, L. Maciulevič iute-Gervers, J. Mierauskiene, S. Rudaitiene, and G. Slapšyte Chromosomal aberrations an sister-chromatid exchanges in Lithuanian populations: effects of occupational and environmental exposures Mutat. Res. 445 1999 225 239
15. L. Dobiáš, J. Hanzl, P. Rössner, L. Janča, H. Rulíšková, Š. Andělová, and H. Klementová Evaluation of the clastogenic effect of formaldehyde in children in preschool and school facilities Čs. Hyg. 33 1988 596 604 (in Czech)
16. V. Srb, P. Rössner, Z. Zudová, H. Pohlová, K. Koudela, H. Voženílková, M. Tmějová, S. Eminger, E. Kubzová, Z. Vodvárka, and K. Zaydlar Action of formaldehyde and toluene on selected cytogenetic indicators in apprentices Čs. Hyg. 35 1990 66 75 (in Czech)
17. J.A. Staessen, T. Nawrot, E. Den Hond, L. Thijs, R. Fagard, K. Hoppenbrouwers, G. Koppen, V. Nelen, G. Schoeters, D. Vanderschueren, E. Van Hecke, L. Vershaeve, R. Vlietinck, and H.A. Roels Renal function, cytogenetic measurements, and sexual development in adolescents in relation to environmental pollutants: a feasibility study of biomarkers Lancet 357 2001 1660 1669
18. A. Tsezou, S. Kitsiou-Tzeli, A. Galla, D. Gourgiotis, J. Papageorgiou, S. Mitrou, P.A. Molybdas, and C. Sinaniotis High nitrate content in drinking water: cytogenetic effects in exposed children Arch. Environ. Health 51 1996 458 461
19. I.I. Pelevina, A.V. Aleshchenko, M.M. Antoshchina, O.V. Koudryashova, L.E. Kurneshova, V.Ya. Gotlib, L.A. Noskin, V.A. Noskin, L.P. Semenova, and A.M. Serebryanyi The level of spontaneous and radiation-induced damage to the peripheral lymphocytes in children in dependence on age lifestyle Radiats. Biol. Radioekol. 41 2001 573 579 (in Russian)
20. V.G. Maimulov, L.V. Kitaeva, T.V. Vereshchagina, E.A. Mikheeva, and L.F. Shelomova Citogenetics Cytogenetic somatic cell disorders in children from areas with different degree of environmental pollution Tsitologia 40 7 1998 686 689 (in Russian)
21. T. Lahiri, S. Roy, C. Basu, S. Ganguly, M.R. Ray, and P. Lahiri Air pollution in Calcutta elicits adverse pulmonary reaction in children Indian J. Med. Res. 112 2000 21 26
22. C. Vleminckx, W. Klemans, L. Schriewer, I. Joris, N. Lijsen, M. Ottogali, A. Pays, C. Planard, G. Rigaux, Y. Ros, M. Vande Rivière, J. Vandenvelde, P. De Plaen, T. Lakhanisky, A. Maes, and L. Verschaeve Performance of cytogenetic biomarkers on children exposed to environmental pollutants Toxicol. Ind. Health 13 1997 219 230
23. A.I. Gorovaia, and I.I. Klimkina Cytogenetic testing in evaluation of the ecological situation and the effect of natural adaptogens on children and adult health Tsitol Genet 36 2002 21 25 (in Russian)
24. F.N. Dulout, C.A. Grillo, A.I. Seoane, C.R. Maderna, R. Nilsson, M. Vahter, F. Darroudi, and A.T. Natarajan Chromosomal aberrations in peripheral blood lymphocytes from native Andean women and children from Northwestern Argentina exposed to arsenic in drinking water Mutat. Res. 370 1996 151 158
25. G. Baier, H. Stopper, C. Kopp, U. Winkler, and I. Zwirner-Baier Respiratory diseases and genotoxicity in tobacco smoke exposed children Laryngorhinootologie 81 2002 217 225 (in German)
26. C. Laurent, T. Lakhanisky, P. Jadot, I. Joris, M. Ottogali, C. Planard, D. Bazzoni, J.M. Foidart, and Y. Ros Increased sister chromatid exchange frequencies observed in a cohort of inhabitants of a village located at the boundary of an industrial dumping ground: phase I Cancer Epidemiol. Biom. Prev. 2 1993 355 362
27. T. Lakhanisky, D. Bazzoni, P. Jadot, I. Joris, C. Laurent, M. Ottogali, A. Pays, C. Planard, Y. Ros, and C. Vleminckx Cytogenetic monitoring of a village population potentially exposed to a low level of environmental pollutants. Phase 1: SCE analysis Mutat. Res. 319 1993 317 323
28. L. Dalprà, M.G. Tibiletti, G. Nocera, P. Giulotto, L. Auriti, V. Carnelli, and G. Simoni SCE analysis in children exposed to lead emission from a smelting plant Mutat. Res. 120 1983 249 256
29. D. Tang, D. Warburton, S.R. Tannenbaum, P. Skipper, R.M. Santella, G. Simon-Cereijido, F.G. Crawford, and F.P. Perera Molecular and genetic damage, from environmental tobacco smoke in young children Cancer Epidemiol. Biom. Prev. 8 1999 427 431
30. K. Lundgren, J.M. Lambert, D. Schreinemachers, and R.B. Everson Effects of 5-bromo-2-deoxyuridine concentration and α-naphthoflavone on the association between smoking and the frequency of sister-chromatid exchanges in lymphocytes from maternal and cord blood Mutat. Res. 188 1987 223 231
31. M. Sorsa, and K. Husgafvel-Pursiainen Assessment of passive and transplacental exposure to tobacco smoke IARC Sci. Publ. 89 1988 129 132
32. M. Sorsa, K. Husgafvel-Pursiainen, H. Järventaus, K. Koskimies, H. Salo, and H. Vainio Cytogenetic effects of tobacco smoke exposure among involuntary smokers Mutat. Res. 222 1989 111 116
33. S. Şardaş, B. Karahalil, D. Akyol, S. Kükner, and A.E. Karakaya The effect of smoking on sister chromatid exchange rate of newborn infants born to smoking mothers Mutat. Res. 341 1995 249 253
34. R. Seshadri, E. Baker, and G.R. Sutherland Sister-chromatid exchange (SCE) analysis in mothers exposed to DNA-damaging agents and their newborn infants Mutat. Res. 97 1982 139 146
35. G. Ardito, L. Lamberti, E. Ansaldi, and P. Ponzetto Sister-chromatid exchanges in cigarette-smoking human females and their newborns Mutat. Res. 78 1980 209 212
36. L. Calderón-Garcidueñas, L. Wen-Wang, Y.-J. Zhang, A. Rodriguez-Alcaraz, N. Osnaya, A. Villareal-Calderón, and R.M. Santella 8-Hydroxy-2′-deoxyguanosine, a major mutagenic oxidative DNA lesion, and DNA strand breaks in nasal respiratory epithelium of children exposed to urban pollution Environ. Health Perspect. 107 1999 469 474
37. R.M. Whyatt, R.M. Santella, W. Jedrychowski, S.J. Garte, D.A. Bell, R. Ottman, A. Gladek-Yarborough, G. Cosma, T.-L. Young, T.B. Cooper, M.C. Randall, D.K. Manchester, and F.P. Perera Relationship between ambient air pollution and DNA damage in Polish mothers and newborns Environ. Health Perspect. 106 1998 821 826
38. F.P. Perera, W. Jedrychowski, V. Rauh, and R.M. Whyatt Molecular epidemiologic research on the effects of environmental pollutants on the fetus Environ. Health Perspect. 107 3 1999 451 460
39. F.P. Perera, D. Tang, Y.-H. Tu, L. Ali Cruz, M. Borjas, T. Bernert, and R.M. Whyatt Biomarkers in maternal and newborn blood indicate heightened fetal susceptibility to procarcinogenic DNA damage Environ. Health Perspect. 112 2004 1133 1136
40. J.P. Arnould, P. Verhoest, V. Bach, J.P. Libert, and J. Belegaud Detection of benzo[a] pyrene-DNA adducts in human placenta and umbilical cord blood Human Exp. Toxicol. 16 1997 716 721
41. R.M. Whyatt, W. Jedrychowski, K. Hemminki, R.M. Santella, W.-Y. Tsai, K. Yang, and F.P. Perera Biomarkers of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-DNA damage and cigarette smoke exposures in paired maternal and newborn blood samples as a measure of differential susceptibility Cancer Epidemiol. Biom. Prev. 10 2001 581 588
42. R. Bono, M. Vincenti, T. Schilirò, D. Traversi, C. Pignata, E. Scursatone, G. Dotti, and G. Gilli Cotinine and N-(2-hydroxyethyl)valine as markers of passive exposure to tobacco smoke in children J. Expo. Anal. Environ. Epidemiol. 15 2005 66 73
43. E. Richter, S. Rösler, G. Scherer, J.G. Gostomzyk, A. Grübl, U. Krämer, and H. Behrendt Haemoglobin adducts from aromatic amines in children in relation to area of residence and exposure to environmental tobacco smoke Int. Arch. Occup. Environ. Health 74 2001 421 428
44. R. Tavares, P. Ramos, J. Palminha, M.A. Bispo, I. Paz, A. Bras, J. Rueff, P.B. Farmer, and E. Bailey Transplacental exposure to genotoxins. Evaluation in haemoglobin of hydroxyethylvaline adduct levels in smoking and non-smoking mothers and their newborns Carcinogenesis 15 1994 1271 1274
45. S.R. Myers, J.A. Spinnato, M.T. Pinorini-Godly, C. Cook, B. Boles, and G.C. Rodgers Characterization of 4-aminobiphenyl-hemoglobin adducts in maternal and fetal blood samples J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 47 1996 553 566
46. M.T. Pinorini-Godly, and S.R. Myers HPLC and GC/MS determination of 4-aminophenyl-haemoglobin adducts in fetuses exposed to the tobacco smoke carcinogen in utero Toxicology 107 1996 209 217
47. J. Coghlin, P.H. Gann, S.K. Hammond, P.L. Skipper, K. Taghizadeh, M. Paul, and S.R. Tannenbaum 4-Aminobiphenyl hemoglobin adducts in fetuses exposed to the tobacco smoke carcinogen in utero J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 83 1991 274 280
48. P.B. Farmer, R. Cordero, and H. Autrup Monitoring human exposure to 2-hydroxyethylating carcinogens Environ. Health Perspect. 104 1996 449 452
49. H. Autrup, A.B. Vestergaard, and H. Okkels Transplacental transfer of environmental genotoxins: polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-albumin in non-smoking women, and the effect of maternal GSTM1 genotype Carcinogenesis 16 1995 1305 1309
50. H. Autrup, and A.B. Vestergaard Transplacental transfer of environmental genotoxins - polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon-albumin in non-smoking women Environ. Health Perspect. 104 1996 625 627
51. F.G. Crawford, J. Mayer, R.M. Santella, T.B. Cooper, R. Ottman, W.-Y. Tsai, G. Simon-Cereijido, M. Wang, D. Tang, and F.P. Perera Biomarkers of environmental tobacco smoke in preschool children and their mothers J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 86 1994 1398 1402
52. R.J. Šrám, K. Podrazilová, J. Dejmek, G. Mračková, and T. Pilčik Single cell gel electrophoresis assay: sensitivity of peripheral white blood cells in human population studies Mutagenesis 13 1998 99 103
53. L. Calderón-Garcidueñas, N. Osnaya-Brizuela, L. Ramírez-Martínez, and A. Villareal-Calderón DNA strand breaks in human nasal respiratory epithelium are induced upon exposure to urban pollution Environ. Health Perspect. 104 1996 160 168
54. L. Calderón-Garcidueñas, N. Osnaya, A. Rodríguez- Alcaraz, and A. Villarreal-Calderón DNA damage in nasal respiratory epithelium from children exposed to urban pollution Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 30 1997 11 20
55. L. Yáñez, E. García-Nieto, E. Rojas, L. Carrizales, J. Mejía, J. Calderón, I. Razo, and F. Díaz-Barriga DNA damage in blood cells from children exposed to arsenic and lead in a mining area Environ. Res. 93 2003 231 240
56. W. Klemans, C. Vleminckx, L. Schriewer, I. Joris, N. Lijsen, A. Maes, M. Ottogali, A. Pays, C. Planard, G. Rigaux, Y. Ros, M. Vande Rivière, J. Vandenvelde, P. Deplaen, and Th. Lakhanisky Cytogenetic biomonitoring of a population of children allegedly exposed to environmental pollutants. Phase 2: results of a three-year longitudinal study Mutat. Res. 342 1995 147 156
57. M.M. Ammenheuser, A.B. Berenson, N.J. Stiglich, E.B. Whorton Jr., and J.B. Ward Jr. Elevated frequencies of hprt mutant lymphocytes in cigarette-smoking mothers and their newborns Mutat. Res. 304 1994 285 294
58. B.A. Finette, T. Poseno, P.M. Vacek, and R.J. Albertini The effects of maternal cigarette smoke on somatic mutant frequencies at the hprt locus in healthy newborns Mutat. Res. 337 1997 115 123
59. B.A. Finette, J.P. O'Neill, P.M. Vacek, and R.J. Albertini Gene mutations with characteristic deletions in cord blood T lymphocytes associated with passive maternal exposure to tobacco smoke Nature Med. 4 1998 1144 1151
60. D.K. Manchester, J.A. Nicklas, J.P. O'Neill, M.J. Lippert, S.G. Grant, R.G. Langlois, D.H. Moore III, R.H. Jensen, R.J. Albertini, and W.L. Bigbee Sensitivity of somatic mutations in human umbilical cord blood to maternal environments Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 26 1995 203 212
61. W.L. Bigbee, R.D. Day, S.G. Grant, P. Keohavong, L. Xi, L. Zhang, and R.B. Ness Impact of maternal lifestyle factors on newborn HPRT mutant frequencies and molecular spectrum - Initial results from the prenatal exposure and preeclampsia prevention (PEPP) study Mutat. Res. 431 1999 279 289
62. P. Vineis, L. Airoldi, F. Veglia, L. Olgiati, R. Pastorelli, H. Autrup, A. Dunning, S. Garte, E. Gormally, P. Hainaut, C. Malaveille, G. Matullo, M. Peluso, K. Overvad, A. Tjonneland, F. Clavel-Chapelon, H. Boeing, V. Krogh, D. Palli, S. Panico, R. Tumino, B. Bueno-De-Mesquita, P. Peeters, G. Berglund, G. Hallmans, R. Saracci, and E. Riboli Environmental tobacco smoke and risk of respiratory cancer and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease in former smokers and never smokers in the EPIC prospective study BMJ 2005 10.1136/bmj.38327. 648472.82
63. IARC Monographs on the Evaluation of the Carcinogenic Risk of Chemicals to Humans. Tobacco Smoking, vol. 38, IARC Press, Lyon, 1986, pp. 199-375.
64. S. Greenland Invited Commentary: a critical look at some popular meta-analytic methods Am. J. Epidemiol. 140 1994 290 296
65. C. Bolognesi, A. Abbondandolo, R. Barale, R. Casalone, L. Dalpra', M. De Ferrari, F. Degrassi, A. Forni, L. Lamberti, C. Lando, L. Migliore, P. Padovani, R. Pasquini, R. Puntoni, I. Sbrana, M. Stella, and S. Bonassi Age-related increase of chromosome aberrations, sister-chromatid exchanges and micronuclei in human lymphocytes Cancer Epidemiol. Biomarkers Prev. 6 1997 249 256
66. S. Bonassi, M. Fenech, C. Lando, Y-P. Lin, M. Ceppi, W.P. Chang, N. Holland, M. Kirsch-Volders, E. Zeiger, S. Ban, R. Barale, M.P. Bigatti, C. Bolognesi, C. Jia, M. Di Giorgio, L.R. Ferguson, A. Fucic, O.G. Lima, P. Hrelia, A.P. Krishnaja, T.-K. Lee, L. Migliore, L. Mikhalevich, E. Mirkova, P. Mosesso, W.-U. Müller, Y. Odagiri, M.R. Scarfì, E. Szabova, I. Vorobtsova, A. Vral, and A. Zijno The HUman MicroNucleus project: international database comparison for results with the cytokinesis-block micronucleus assay in human lymphocytes: I. Effect of laboratory protocol, scoring criteria, and host factors on the frequency of micronuclei Environ. Mol. Mutagen. 37 2001 31 45
67. M. Neri, M. Ceppi, L.E. Knudsen, D.F. Merlo, R. Barale, R. Puntoni, S. Bonassi, Baseline micronuclei frequency in children: estimates from meta- and pooled analyses, Environ. Health Perspect., in press.
68. K. Hemminki, and W.G. Thilly Implications of results of molecular epidemiology on DNA adducts, their repair and mutations for mechanisms of human cancer IARC Sci. Publ. 157 2004 217 235
69. H. Lehmann, R.G. Huntsman, Man's Haemoglobins: including the Haemoglobinopathies and Their Investigation, North-Holland, Amsterdam, 1974.
70. B.L. Harper, V.M. Ramanujam, and M.S. Legator Micronucleus formation by benzene, cyclophosphamide, benzo(a)pyrene, and benzidine in male, female, pregnant female, and fetal mice Teratog. Carcinogen. Mutagen. 39 1989 239 252
71. M.Y. Wang, and L.J. Lu Differential effect of gestation stage on benzo(a)pyrene-induced micronucleous formation and/or covalent DNA modifications in mice Cancer Res. 50 1990 2146 2151
72. C. Bolognesi, L. Rossi, O. Barbieri, and L. Santi Benzo(a)pyrene-induced DNA damage in mouse fetal tissue Carcinogenesis 6 1985 1091 1095
73. O.M. Bulay, and L.W. Wattemberg Carcinogenic effects of polycyclic hydrocarbon carcinogens administered to mice during pregnancy on the progeny J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 46 1971 394 420
74. B. Toth, H. Rappaport, and P. Shubik Influence of dose and age on the induction of malignant lymphomas and other tumors by 7,12-dimethylbenz[a] anthracene in Swiss mice J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 30 1963 723 741
75. J.M. Rice, and J.M. Ward Age dependence of susceptibility to carcinogenesis in the nervous system Ann. N.Y. Acad. Sci. 381 1982 274 289
76. L.F. Soyka Hepatic drug metabolizing enzyme activity and tumorigenesis in mice following perinatal exposure to benzo(a)pyrene Pediatr. Pharmacol. 1 1980 85 96
77. M.F. Greaves, and J. Wielmels Origins of chromosome translocations in childhood leukemia Nat. Rev. Cancer 3 2003 639 649
78. M.F. Greaves, A.T. Maia, J.L. Wielmels, and A.M. Ford Leukemia in twins: lessons in natural history Blood 102 2003 2321 2333
79. B.T. Ji, X.O. Shu, M.S. Linet, W. Zheng, S. Wacholder, Y.T. Gao, D.M. Ying, and F. Jin Paternal cigarette smoking and the risk of childhood cancer among offspring of non-smoking mothers J. Natl. Cancer Inst. 89 1997 238 244
80. L. Hagmar, U. Stromberg, S. Bonassi, I.L. Hansteen, L.E. Knudsen, C. Lindholm, and H. Norppa Impact of types of lymphocyte chromosomal aberrations on human cancer risk: results from Nordic and Italian cohorts Cancer Res. 64 2004 2258 2263