Cardioversion of atrial tachyarrhythmias: Anticoagulation to reduce thromboembolic complications

Progress in Cardiovascular Diseases

Volumn 46, Issue 6, 2004, Pages 487-505

  Guo, Hongsheng ^a   Shaheen, Wassim ^a   Kerber, Richard ^a   Olshansky, Brian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF IOWA HOSPITALS AND CLINICS   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AMIODARONE; ANTIARRHYTHMIC AGENT; ARGATROBAN; DALTEPARIN; ENOXAPARIN; HEPARIN; HIRUDIN; HIRULOG; MELAGATRAN; THROMBIN INHIBITOR; WARFARIN; XIMELAGATRAN;

ANTICOAGULATION; BLEEDING; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM; CARDIOVERSION; CATHETER ABLATION; CLINICAL TRIAL; DEFIBRILLATOR; HEART ATRIUM FIBRILLATION; HEART ATRIUM FLUTTER; HEART FUNCTION; HEART SURGERY; HEMODYNAMICS; HUMAN; PREGNANCY; REVIEW; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK REDUCTION; SIDE EFFECT; STROKE; THROMBOEMBOLISM; THROMBOGENESIS;

EID: 2942678950     PISSN: 00330620     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.pcad.2003.12.001     Document Type: Article

References (167)

1. Fuster V., Ryden L.E., Asinger R.W., et al. ACC/AHA/ESC Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation Executive Summary A Report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines and Policy Conferences. Circulation. 104:2001;2118-2150. (Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Atrial Fibrillation). Developed in Collaboration with the North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology
2. Levy S., Maarek M., Coumel P., et al. Characterization of different subsets of atrial fibrillation in general practice in France: The ALFA study. The College of French Cardiologists. Circulation. 99:1999;3028-3035
3. Peters N.S., Schilling R.J., Kanagaratnam P., Markides V. Atrial fibrillation Strategies to control, combat, and cure. Lancet. 359:2002;593-603
4. Zarifis J., Beevers G., Lip G.Y. Acute admissions with atrial fibrillation in a British multiracial hospital population. Br J Clin Pract. 51:1997;91-96
5. Wyse D.G., Waldo A.L., DiMarco J.P., et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 347:2002;1825-1833
6. Hohnloser S.H., Kuck K.H. Atrial fibrillation - maintaining sinus rhythm versus ventricular rate control: The PIAF trial. Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 9:1998;S121-126
7. Saxonhouse S.J., Curtis A.B. Risks and benefits of rate control versus maintenance of sinus rhythm. Am J Cardiol. 91:2003;27D-32D
8. Carlsson J., Miketic S., Windeler J., et al. Randomized trial of rate-control versus rhythm-control in persistent atrial fibrillation The Strategies of Treatment of Atrial Fibrillation (STAF) study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 41:2003;1690-1696
9. Van Gelder I.C., Hagens V.E., Bosker H.A., et al. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with recurrent persistent atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 347:2002;1834-1840
10. Yamashita T., Ogawa S., Aizawa Y., et al. Investigation of the optimal treatment strategy for atrial fibrillation in Japan. Circ J. 67:2003;738-741
11. Hohnloser S.H., Kuck K.H., Lilienthal J. Rhythm or rate control in atrial fibrillation - Pharmacological Intervention in Atrial Fibrillation (PIAF) A randomised trial. Lancet. 356:2000;1789-1794
12. Pappone C., Rosanio S., Augello G., et al. Mortality, morbidity, and quality of life after circumferential pulmonary vein ablation for atrial fibrillation Outcomes from a controlled nonrandomized long-term study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 42:2003;185-197
13. Haissaguerre M., Jais P., Shah D.C., et al. Spontaneous initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating in the pulmonary veins. N Engl J Med. 339:1998;659-666
14. Haissaguerre M., Jais P., Shah D.C., et al. Electrophysiological end point for catheter ablation of atrial fibrillation initiated from multiple pulmonary venous foci. Circulation. 101:2000;1409-1417
15. Haissaguerre M., Jais P., Shah D.C., et al. Right and left atrial radiofrequency catheter therapy of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 7:1996;1132-1144
16. Chen S.A., Hsieh M.H., Tai C.T., et al. Initiation of atrial fibrillation by ectopic beats originating from the pulmonary veins Electrophysiological characteristics, pharmacological responses, and effects of radiofrequency ablation. Circulation. 100:1999;1879-1886
17. Pappone C., Oreto G., Lamberti F., et al. Catheter ablation of paroxysmal atrial fibrillation using a 3D mapping system. Circulation. 100:1999;1203-1208
18. Oral H., Scharf C., Chugh A., et al. Catheter ablation for paroxysmal atrial fibrillation Segmental pulmonary vein ostial ablation versus left atrial ablation. Circulation. 108:2003;2355-2360
19. The Boston Area Anticoagulation Trial for Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. The effect of low-dose warfarin on the risk of stroke in patients with nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 323:1990;1505-1511
20. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Study. Final results. Circulation. 84:1991;527-539
21. EAFT (European Atrial Fibrillation Trial) Study Group. Secondary prevention in non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation after transient ischaemic attack or minor stroke. Lancet. 342:1993;1255-1262
22. Warfarin versus aspirin for prevention of thromboembolism in atrial fibrillation Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation II Study. Lancet. 343:1994;687-6691
23. Risk factors for stroke and efficacy of antithrombotic therapy in atrial fibrillation. Analysis of pooled data from five randomized controlled trials. Arch Intern Med. 154:1994;1449-1457
24. Hart R.G., Halperin J.L., Pearce L.A., et al. Lessons from the Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation trials. Ann Intern Med. 138:2003;831-838
25. Taylor F.C., Cohen H., Ebrahim S. Systematic review of long term anticoagulation or antiplatelet treatment in patients with non-rheumatic atrial fibrillation. BMJ. 322:2001;321-326
26. Lown B., Perlroth M., Kaidbey S., et al. Cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 269:1963;325-331
27. Resnekov L., McDonald L. Complications in 220 patients with cardiac dysrhythmias treated by phased direct current shock, and indications for electroconversion. Br Heart J. 29:1967;926-936
28. Aberg H., Cullhed I. Direct current countershock complications. Acta Med Scand. 183:1968;415-421
29. Przybylski A., Sterlinski M., Lewandowski M., et al. Risk of thromboembolic complications in patients with permanent atrial fibrillation undergoing cardioverter-defibrillator implantation. Kardiol Pol. 57:2002;306-312
30. Bjerkelund C.J., Orning O.M. The efficacy of anticoagulant therapy in preventing embolism related to D.C. electrical conversion of atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 23:1969;208-216
31. Berger M., Schweitzer P. Timing of thromboembolic events after electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter A retrospective analysis. Am J Cardiol. 82:1998;1545-1547. A8
32. Allessie M., Ausma J., Schotten U. Electrical, contractile and structural remodeling during atrial fibrillation. Cardiovasc Res. 54:2002;230-246
33. Kamp O., Verhorst P.M., Welling R.C., et al. Importance of left atrial appendage flow as a predictor of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation. Eur Heart J. 20:1999;979-985
34. O'Neill P.G., Puleo P.R., Bolli R., et al. Return of atrial mechanical function following electrical conversion of atrial dysrhythmias. Am Heart J. 120:1990;353-359
35. Louie E.K., Liu D., Reynertson S.I., et al. "Stunning" of the left atrium after spontaneous conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm Demonstration by transesophageal Doppler techniques in a canine model. J Am Coll Cardiol. 32:1998;2081-2086
36. Grimm R.A., Stewart W.J., Arheart K., et al. Left atrial appendage "stunning" after electrical cardioversion of atrial flutter An attenuated response compared with atrial fibrillation as the mechanism for lower susceptibility to thromboembolic events. J Am Coll Cardiol. 29:1997;582-589
37. Sparks P.B., Jayaprakash S., Vohra J.K., et al. Left atrial "stunning" following radiofrequency catheter ablation of chronic atrial flutter. J Am Coll Cardiol. 32:1998;468-475
38. Sparks P.B., Jayaprakash S., Mond H.G., et al. Left atrial mechanical function after brief duration atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 33:1999;342-349
39. Sparks P.B., Kulkarni R., Vohra J.K., et al. Effect of direct current shocks on left atrial mechanical function in patients with structural heart disease. J Am Coll Cardiol. 31:1998;1395-1399
40. Khan I.A. Atrial stunning Determinants and cellular mechanisms. Am Heart J. 145:2003;787-794
41. Oltrona L., Broccolino M., Merlini P.A., et al. Activation of the hemostatic mechanism after pharmacological cardioversion of acute nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 95:1997;2003-2006
42. Lip G.Y. Does atrial fibrillation confer a hypercoagulable state? Lancet. 346:1995;1313-1314
43. Lip G.Y. Hypercoagulability and haemodynamic abnormalities in atrial fibrillation. Heart. 77:1997;395-396
44. Lip G.Y., Rumley A., Dunn F.G., et al. Plasma fibrinogen and fibrin D-dimer in patients with atrial fibrillation Effects of cardioversion to sinus rhythm. Int J Cardiol. 51:1995;245-251
45. Li-Saw-Hee F.L., Blann A.D., Lip G.Y. Effect of degree of blood pressure on the hypercoagulable state in chronic atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 86:2000;795-797. A9
46. Chung N.A., Belgore F., Li-Saw-Hee F.L., et al. Is the hypercoagulable state in atrial fibrillation mediated by vascular endothelial growth factor? Stroke. 33:2002;2187-2191
47. Kamath S., Blann A.D., Chin B.S., et al. A study of platelet activation in atrial fibrillation and the effects of antithrombotic therapy. Eur Heart J. 23:2002;1788-1795
48. Mahe I., Drouet L., Chassany O., et al. D-dimer A characteristic of the coagulation state of each patient with chronic atrial fibrillation. Thromb Res. 107:2002;1-6
49. Gokce M., Ucar F., Kucukosmanoglu M., et al. Factor V Leiden mutation and its relation to left atrial thrombus in chronic nonrheumatic atrial fibrillation. Jpn Heart J. 44:2003;481-491
50. Marin F., Roldan V., Lip G.Y. Fibrinolytic function and atrial fibrillation. Thromb Res. 109:2003;233-240
51. Uno M., Tsuji H., Sawada S., et al. Fibrinopeptide A (FPA) levels in atrial fibrillation and the effects of heparin administration. Jpn Circ J. 52:1988;9-12
52. Wang J., Xie X., He H., et al. Hypercoagulability existing in the local left atrium of patient with mitral stenosis. Chin Med J (Engl). 116:2003;1198-1202
53. Cai H., Li Z., Goette A., et al. Downregulation of endocardial nitric oxide synthase expression and nitric oxide production in atrial fibrillation Potential mechanisms for atrial thrombosis and stroke. Circulation. 106:2002;2854-2858
54. Minamino T., Kitakaze M., Sato H., et al. Plasma levels of nitrite/nitrate and platelet cGMP levels are decreased in patients with atrial fibrillation. Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 17:1997;3191-3195
55. Noris M., Morigi M., Donadelli R., et al. Nitric oxide synthesis by cultured endothelial cells is modulated by flow conditions. Circ Res. 76:1995;536-543
56. Rubart M., Zipes D.P. NO hope for patients with atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 106:2002;2764-2766
57. Danias P.G., Caulfield T.A., Weigner M.J., et al. Likelihood of spontaneous conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. J Am Coll Cardiol. 31:1998;588-592
58. Hart R.G., Pearce L.A., Rothbart R.M., et al. Stroke with intermittent atrial fibrillation: Incidence and predictors during aspirin therapy. Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation Investigators. J Am Coll Cardiol. 35:2000;183-187
59. Adjusted-dose warfarin versus low-intensity, fixed-dose warfarin plus aspirin for high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation Stroke Prevention in Atrial Fibrillation III randomised clinical trial. Lancet. 348:1996;633-638
60. Nakajima K., Ichinose M. Ischemic stroke in elderly patients with paroxysmal atrial fibrillation. Nippon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi. 33:1996;273-277
61. Kannel W.B., Abbott R.D., Savage D.D., et al. Coronary heart disease and atrial fibrillation The Framingham Study. Am Heart J. 106:1983;389-396
62. Treseder A.S., Sastry B.S., Thomas T.P., et al. Atrial fibrillation and stroke in elderly hospitalized patients. Age Ageing. 15:1986;89-92
63. Cabin H.S., Clubb K.S., Hall C., et al. Risk for systemic embolization of atrial fibrillation without mitral stenosis. Am J Cardiol. 65:1990;1112-1116
64. Ellenbogen K.A., Stambler B.S., Wood M.A., et al. Efficacy of intravenous ibutilide for rapid termination of atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter A dose-response study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 28:1996;130-136
65. Singh S., Zoble R.G., Yellen L., et al. Efficacy and safety of oral dofetilide in converting to and maintaining sinus rhythm in patients with chronic atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter The Symptomatic Atrial Fibrillation Investigative Research on Dofetilide (SAFIRE-D) study. Circulation. 102:2000;2385-2390
66. Stambler B.S., Wood M.A., Ellenbogen K.A., et al. Efficacy and safety of repeated intravenous doses of ibutilide for rapid conversion of atrial flutter or fibrillation. Ibutilide Repeat Dose Study Investigators. Circulation. 94:1996;1613-1621
67. Oral H., Souza J.J., Michaud G.F., et al. Facilitating transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with ibutilide pretreatment. N Engl J Med. 340:1999;1849-1854
68. Volgman A.S., Carberry P.A., Stambler B., et al. Conversion efficacy and safety of intravenous ibutilide compared with intravenous procainamide in patients with atrial flutter or fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 31:1998;1414-1419
69. Pedersen O.D., Bagger H., Keller N., et al. Efficacy of dofetilide in the treatment of atrial fibrillation-flutter in patients with reduced left ventricular function A Danish investigations of arrhythmia and mortality on dofetilide (diamond) substudy. Circulation. 104:2001;292-296
70. Bianconi L., Castro A., Dinelli M., et al. Comparison of intravenously administered dofetilide versus amiodarone in the acute termination of atrial fibrillation and flutter. A multicentre, randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Eur Heart J. 21:2000;1265-1273
71. Glatter K., Yang Y., Chatterjee K., et al. Chemical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation or flutter with ibutilide in patients receiving amiodarone therapy. Circulation. 103:2001;253-257
72. Botkin S.B., Dhanekula L.S., Olshansky B. Outpatient cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias Efficacy, safety, and costs. Am Heart J. 145:2003;233-238
73. Gallagher M.M., Hennessy B.J., Edvardsson N., et al. Embolic complications of direct current cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias Association with low intensity of anticoagulation at the time of cardioversion. J Am Coll Cardiol. 40:2002;926-933
74. Zhang Y., Ramabadran R.S., Boddicker K.A., et al. Triphasic waveforms are superior to biphasic waveforms for transthoracic defibrillation Experimental studies. J Am Coll Cardiol. 42:2003;568-575
75. Zhang Y., Rhee B.J., Davies L.R., et al. Quadraphasic shocks for transthoracic defibrillation Experimental studies. Circulation. 108:2003;IV-319
76. Carunchio A., Burattini M., Coletta C., et al. Electrical cardioversion for atrial fibrillation Advantages of the transthoracic biphasic method. Ital Heart J. 3:2002;638-645
77. Ermis C., Zhu A.X., Sinha S., et al. Efficacy of biphasic waveform cardioversion for atrial fibrillation and atrial flutter compared with conventional monophasic waveforms. Am J Cardiol. 90:2002;891-892
78. Havranek E. Biphasic waveform shocks were effective and efficient for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. ACP J Club. 138:2003;8
79. Khaykin Y., Newman D., Kowalewski M., et al. Biphasic versus monophasic cardioversion in shock-resistant atrial fibrillation. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 14:2003;868-872
80. Marinsek M., Larkin G.L., Zohar P., et al. Efficacy and impact of monophasic versus biphasic countershocks for transthoracic cardioversion of persistent atrial fibrillation. Am J Cardiol. 92:2003;988-991
81. Neal S., Ngarmukos T., Lessard D., et al. Comparison of the efficacy and safety of two biphasic defibrillator waveforms for the conversion of atrial fibrillation to sinus rhythm. Am J Cardiol. 92:2003;810-814
82. Neri G., Alitto F., Zamprogno R., et al. Efficacy and safety of ambulatory electric cardioversion of atrial fibrillation with monophasic and biphasic shock. Ital Heart J. 2:2001;1315-1318
83. Page R.L., Kerber R.E., Russell J.K., et al. Biphasic versus monophasic shock waveform for conversion of atrial fibrillation The results of an international randomized, double-blind multicenter trial. J Am Coll Cardiol. 39:2002;1956-1963
84. Scholten M., Szili-Torok T., Klootwijk P., et al. Comparison of monophasic and biphasic shocks for transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Heart. 89:2003;1032-1034
85. Mittal S., Ayati S., Stein K.M., et al. Transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation Comparison of rectilinear biphasic versus damped sine wave monophasic shocks. Circulation. 101:2000;1282-1287
86. Kerber R.E. Transthoracic cardioversion of atrial fibrillation and flutter Standard techniques and new advances. Am J Cardiol. 78:1996;22-26
87. Cooper J.M., Katcher M.S., Orlov M.V. Implantable devices for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 346:2002;2062-2068
88. Wellens H.J., Lau C.P., Luderitz B., et al. Atrioverter An implantable device for the treatment of atrial fibrillation. Circulation. 98:1998;1651-1656
89. Omran H., Jung W., Rabahieh R., et al. Left atrial chamber and appendage function after internal atrial defibrillation A prospective and serial transesophageal echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 29:1997;131-138
90. Tse H.F., Lau C.P. Bleeding and thromboembolic risks of internal cardioversion for persistent atrial fibrillation. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 25:2002;1752-1755
91. Maria Amuchastegui L., Cravero C., Salomone O., et al. Atrial mechanical function before and after electrical or amiodarone cardioversion in atrial fibrillation Assessment by transesophageal echocardiography and pulsed Doppler. Echocardiography. 13:1996;123-130
92. Straus S.E., Majumdar S.R., McAlister F.A. New evidence for stroke prevention Clinical applications. JAMA. 288:2002;1396-1398
93. Lown B. Electrical reversion of cardiac arrhythmias. Br Heart J. 29:1967;469-489
94. Lown B., Kleiger R., Williams J. Cardioversion and digitalis drugs Changed threshold to electric shock in digitalized animals. Circ Res. 17:1965;519-531
95. Carlsson J., Tebbe U., Rox J., et al. Cardioversion of atrial fibrillation in the elderly. ALKK-Study Group. Arbeitsgemeinschaft Leitender Kardiologischer Krankenhausaerzte. Am J Cardiol. 78:1996;1380-1384
96. van Walraven C., Hart R.G., Singer D.E., et al. Oral anticoagulants vs aspirin in nonvalvular atrial fibrillation An individual patient meta-analysis. JAMA. 288:2002;2441-2448
97. Hylek E.M., Go A.S., Chang Y., et al. Effect of intensity of oral anticoagulation on stroke severity and mortality in atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 349:2003;1019-1026
98. Arnold A.Z., Mick M.J., Mazurek R.P., et al. Role of prophylactic anticoagulation for direct current cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation or atrial flutter. J Am Coll Cardiol. 19:1992;851-855
99. Elhendy A., Gentile F., Khandheria B.K., et al. Safety of electrical cardioversion in patients with previous embolic events. Mayo Clin Proc. 76:2001;364-368
100. Elhendy A., Gentile F., Khandheria B.K., et al. Thromboembolic complications after electrical cardioversion in patients with atrial flutter. Am J Med. 111:2001;433-438
101. Gentile F., Elhendy A., Khandheria B.K., et al. Safety of electrical cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. Mayo Clin Proc. 77:2002;897-904
102. Lanzarotti C.J., Olshansky B. Thromboembolism in chronic atrial flutter Is the risk underestimated? J Am Coll Cardiol. 30:1997;1506-1511
103. Mehta D., Baruch L. Thromboembolism following cardioversion of "common" atrial flutter. Risk factors and limitations of transesophageal echocardiography. Chest. 110:1996;1001-1003
104. Seidl K., Hauer B., Schwick N.G., et al. Risk of thromboembolic events in patients with atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 82:1998;580-583
105. Atrial Fibrillation Follow-up Investigation of Rhythm Management (AFFIRM) Investigators. A comparison of rate control and rhythm control in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 347:2002;1825-1833
106. Fetsch T., Burschel G., Breithardt G., et al. Medicamentous prevention after electric cardioversion of chronic atrial fibrillation. Goals and design of the PAFAC Study. Z Kardiol. 88:1999;195-207
107. Ferguson J.J. III. Meeting highlights Highlights of the XXIII Congress of the European Society of Cardiology. Circulation. 104:2001;111e-116
108. Stoddard M.F., Dawkins P.R., Prince C.R., et al. Left atrial appendage thrombus is not uncommon in patients with acute atrial fibrillation and a recent embolic event A transesophageal echocardiographic study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 25:1995;452-459
109. Weigner M.J., Caulfield T.A., Danias P.G., et al. Risk for clinical thromboembolism associated with conversion to sinus rhythm in patients with atrial fibrillation lasting less than 48 hours. Ann Intern Med. 126:1997;615-620
110. Prater S., Reynertson S., Louie E., et al. Incidence of atrial thrombus in patients with type I atrial flutter undergoing catheter ablation. Circulation. 94:1996;728
111. Olshansky B., Wilber D.J., Hariman R.J. Atrial flutter - update on the mechanism and treatment. Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 15:1992;2308-2335
112. Biblo L.A., Yuan Z., Quan K.J., et al. Risk of stroke in patients with atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 87:2001;346-349. A9
113. Liaudet L., Kehtari R., Enrico J.F. Cerebral thromboembolism after direct current cardioversion for pure atrial flutter. Intensive Care Med. 23:1997;196-197
114. Bikkina M., Alpert M.A., Mulekar M., et al. Prevalence of intraatrial thrombus in patients with atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 76:1995;186-189
115. Irani W.N., Grayburn P.A., Afridi I. Prevalence of thrombus, spontaneous echo contrast, and atrial stunning in patients undergoing cardioversion of atrial flutter. A prospective study using transesophageal echocardiography. Circulation. 95:1997;962-966
116. Jordaens L., Missault L., Germonpre E., et al. Delayed restoration of atrial function after conversion of atrial flutter by pacing or electrical cardioversion. Am J Cardiol. 71:1993;63-67
117. Wadas M.A., Prater S., Martini M., et al. Left atrial appendage contraction velocities are neither regular frequency nor uniform in amplitude despite apparently well organized electric activation in atrial flutter. J Am Coll Cardiol. 29:1997;291A
118. Corrado G., Sgalambro A., Mantero A., et al. Thromboembolic risk in atrial flutter. The FLASIEC (FLutter Atriale Societa Italiana di Ecografia Cardiovascolare) multicentre study. Eur Heart J. 22:2001;1042-1051. 2001
119. Welch P.J., Afridi I., Joglar J.A., et al. Effect of radiofrequency ablation on atrial mechanical function in patients with atrial flutter. Am J Cardiol. 84:1999;420-425
120. Takami M., Suzuki M., Sugi K., et al. Time course for resolution of left atrial appendage stunning after catheter ablation of chronic atrial flutter. J Am Coll Cardiol. 41:2003;2207-2211
121. Zeuthen E.L., Lassen J.F., Husted S.E. Is there a hypercoagulable phase during initiation of antithrombotic therapy with oral anticoagulants in patients with atrial fibrillation? Thromb Res. 109:2003;241-246
122. Cundiff D.K. Anticoagulants for nonvalvular atrial fibrillation (NVAF) - Drug review. MedGenMed. 5:2003;4
123. Schulman S. Clinical practice. Care of patients receiving long-term anticoagulant therapy. N Engl J Med. 349:2003;675-683
124. Weisbord S.D., Whittle J., Brooks R.C. Is warfarin really underused in patients with atrial fibrillation? J Gen Intern Med. 16:2001;743-749
125. Mayet J., Wasan B., Sutton G.C. Cardioversion of atrial arrhythmias Audit of anticoagulation management. J R Coll Physicians Lond. 31:1997;313-316
126. Leung C.S., Tam K.M. Antithrombotic treatment of atrial fibrillation in a regional hospital in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Med J. 9:2003;179-185
127. Camm A.J. Atrial fibrillation Is there a role for low-molecular-weight heparin? Clin Cardiol. 24:2001;I15-19
128. Wodlinger A.M., Pieper J.A. Low-molecular-weight heparin in transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Pharmacotherapy. 23:2003;57-63
129. Murray R.D., Shah A., Jasper S.E., et al. Transesophageal echocardiography guided enoxaparin antithrombotic strategy for cardioversion of atrial fibrillation The ACUTE II pilot study. Am Heart J. 139:2000;1-7
130. de Luca I., Sorino M., Del Salvatore B., et al. A new therapeutic strategy for electrical cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Ital Heart J. 2:2001;831-840
131. Bechtold H., Gunzenhauser D., Sawitzki H., et al. Anticoagulation with the low-molecular-weight heparin dalteparin (Fragmin) in atrial fibrillation and TEE-guided cardioversion. Z Kardiol. 92:2003;532-539
132. Yigit Z., Kucukoglu M.S., Okcun B., et al. The safety of low-molecular weight heparins for the prevention of thromboembolic events after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Jpn Heart J. 44:2003;369-377
133. Stellbrink C., Hanrath P., Nixdorff U., et al. Low molecular weight heparin for prevention of thromboembolic complications in cardioversion - rationale and design of the ACE study (Anticoagulation in Cardioversion using Enoxaparin). Z Kardiol. 91:2002;249-254
134. Sarich T.C., Wolzt M., Eriksson U.G., et al. Effects of ximelagatran, an oral direct thrombin inhibitor, r-hirudin and enoxaparin on thrombin generation and platelet activation in healthy male subjects. J Am Coll Cardiol. 41:2003;557-564
135. Eriksson U.G., Bredberg U., Hoffmann K.J., et al. Absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion of ximelagatran, an oral direct thrombin inhibitor, in rats, dogs, and humans. Drug Metab Dispos. 31:2003;294-305
136. Kaplan K.L., Francis C.W. Direct thrombin inhibitors. Semin Hematol. 39:2002;187-196
137. Hopfner R. Ximelagatran (AstraZeneca). Curr Opin Investig Drugs. 3:2002;246-251
138. Gustafsson D. Oral direct thrombin inhibitors in clinical development. J Intern Med 254:322-334, 254
139. Gustafsson D., Elg M. The pharmacodynamics and pharmacokinetics of the oral direct thrombin inhibitor ximelagatran and its active metabolite melagatran A mini-review. Thromb Res. 109:2003;S9-15
140. Gustafsson D., Antonsson T., Bylund R., et al. Effects of melagatran, a new low-molecular-weight thrombin inhibitor, on thrombin and fibrinolytic enzymes. Thromb Haemost. 79:1998;110-118
141. Nylander S., Mattsson C. Thrombin-induced platelet activation and its inhibition by anticoagulants with different modes of action. Blood Coagul Fibrinolysis. 14:2003;159-167
142. Mattsson C., Menschik-Lundin A., Nylander S., et al. Effect of different types of thrombin inhibitors on thrombin/thrombomodulin modulated activation of protein C in vitro. Thromb Res. 104:2001;475-486
143. Petersen P., Grind M., Adler J. Ximelagatran versus warfarin for stroke prevention in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation. SPORTIF II: A dose-guiding, tolerability, and safety study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 41:2003;1445-1451
144. Halperin J.L. Ximelagatran compared with warfarin for prevention of thromboembolism in patients with nonvalvular atrial fibrillation Rationale, objectives, and design of a pair of clinical studies and baseline patient characteristics (SPORTIF III and V). Am Heart J. 146:2003;431-438
145. Sievert H., Lesh M.D., Trepels T., et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage transcatheter occlusion to prevent stroke in high-risk patients with atrial fibrillation Early clinical experience. Circulation. 105:2002;1887-1889
146. Crystal E., Lamy A., Connolly S.J., et al. Left Atrial Appendage Occlusion Study (LAAOS) A randomized clinical trial of left atrial appendage occlusion during routine coronary artery bypass graft surgery for long-term stroke prevention. Am Heart J. 145:2003;174-178
147. Nakai T., Lesh M.D., Gerstenfeld E.P., et al. Percutaneous left atrial appendage occlusion (PLAATO) for preventing cardioembolism First experience in canine model. Circulation. 105:2002;2217-2222
148. Klein A.L., Grimm R.A., Murray R.D., et al. Use of transesophageal echocardiography to guide cardioversion in patients with atrial fibrillation. N Engl J Med. 344:2001;1411-1420
149. Kamalesh M., Subbiah S., Sharan L., et al. Rapid formation of left atrial appendage thrombus after unsuccessful cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. Echocardiography. 18:2001;157-158
150. Klein A.L., Murray R.D., Grimm R.A. Role of transesophageal echocardiography-guided cardioversion of patients with atrial fibrillation. J Am Coll Cardiol. 37:2001;691-704
151. Stollberger C., Schneider B., Finsterer J. Is percutaneous left atrial appendage transcatheter occlusion an alternative to oral anticoagulation in patients with atrial fibrillation? Circulation. 107:2003;e11-12. (Author reply e11-2)
152. Manning W.J., Silverman D.I., Douglas P.S. Thromboembolism after negative TEE. Circulation. 90:1994;3121-3122
153. Missault L., Jordaens L., Gheeraert P., et al. Embolic stroke after unanticoagulated cardioversion despite prior exclusion of atrial thrombi by transoesophageal echocardiography. Eur Heart J. 15:1994;1279-1280
154. Seidl K., Rameken M., Drogemuller A., et al. Embolic events in patients with atrial fibrillation and effective anticoagulation Value of transesophageal echocardiography to guide direct-current cardioversion. Final results of the Ludwigshafen Observational Cardioversion Study. J Am Coll Cardiol. 39:2002;1436-1442
155. Black I.W., Fatkin D., Sagar K.B., et al. Exclusion of atrial thrombus by transesophageal echocardiography does not preclude embolism after cardioversion of atrial fibrillation. A multicenter study. Circulation. 89:1994;2509-2513
156. Blomstrom-Lundqvist C., Scheinman M.M., Aliot E.M., et al. ACC/AHA/ESC guidelines for the management of patients with supraventricular arrhythmias - Executive summary A report of the American College of Cardiology/American Heart Association Task Force on Practice Guidelines and the European Society of Cardiology Committee for Practice Guidelines. Circulation. 108:2003;1871-1909. (Writing Committee to Develop Guidelines for the Management of Patients With Supraventricular Arrhythmias)
157. Rotmensch H.H., Rotmensch S., Elkayam U. Management of cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy. Current concepts. Drugs. 33:1987;623-633
158. Ueland K., McAnulty J.H., Ueland F.R., et al. Special considerations in the use of cardiovascular drugs. Clin Obstet Gynecol. 24:1981;809-823
159. Ogburn P.L. Jr, Schmidt G., Linman J., et al. Paroxysmal tachycardia and cardioversion during pregnancy. J Reprod Med. 27:1982;359-362
160. Treakle K., Kostic B., Hulkower S. Supraventricular tachycardia resistant to treatment in a pregnant woman. J Fam Pract. 35:1992;581-584
161. Gowda R.M., Khan I.A., Mehta N.J., et al. Cardiac arrhythmias in pregnancy Clinical and therapeutic considerations. Int J Cardiol. 88:2003;129-133
162. Joglar J.A., Page R.L. Treatment of cardiac arrhythmias during pregnancy Safety considerations. Drug Saf. 20:1999;85-94
163. Page R.L. Treatment of arrhythmias during pregnancy. Am Heart J. 130:1995;871-876
164. Pahlow B., Geisler A.K., Davis G.H. Management of acute paroxysmal supraventricular tachycardia in pregnancy. J Am Osteopath Assoc. 91:1991;51-52. 57, 61-62
165. Rosemond R.L. Cardioversion during pregnancy. JAMA. 269:1993;3167
166. Barnes E.J., Eben F., Patterson D. Direct current cardioversion during pregnancy should be performed with facilities available for fetal monitoring and emergency caesarean section. BJOG. 109:2002;1406-1407
167. Gronefeld G.C., Mauss O., Li Y.G., et al. Association between atrial fibrillation and appropriate implantable cardioverter defibrillator therapy Results from a prospective study. J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 11:2001;1208-1214