Pinel in the maghreb: Liberation, confinement, and psychiatric reform in French North Africa

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 79, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 459-499

  Keller, Richard C ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN MADISON   (United States)

Author keywords

Algeria; Colonialism; France; Morocco; Psychiatry; Tunisia; Twentieth century

Indexed keywords

EID: 27144440087     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.2005.0112     Document Type: Review

References (225)

1. Solomon Lwoff and Paul Sérieux, "Sur quelques moyens de contrainte appliqués sur les aliénés au Maroc," Bulletin de la Société clinique de médecine mentale, 1911, 4: 168-74, quotation on p. 171.
2. "L'assistance psychiatrique au Maroc," Maroc médical, 1949, 28: n.p.
3. See, e.g., Roy MacLeod, "On Visiting the 'Moving Metropolis': Reflections on the Architecture of Imperial Science," in Scientific Colonialism: A Cross-Cultural Comparison, ed. Nathan Reingold and Marc Rothenberg (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian, 1987), pp. 217-49;
4. Kim Pelis, "Prophet for Profit in French North Africa: Charles Nicolle and the Pasteur Institute of Tunis, 1903-1936," Bull. Hist. Med., 1997, 71: 583-622;
5. Warwick Anderson, "'Where Every Prospect Pleases and Only Man Is Vile': Laboratory Medicine and Colonial Discourse," Crit. Inquiry, 1992, 18: 503-29;
6. Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999);
7. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1990);
8. Mark Harrison, Climates and Constitutions: Health, Race, Environment and British Imperialism in India, 1600-1850 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997);
9. and several essays in Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2001). On the changing historiography of colonial science
10. see Paolo Palladino and Michael Worboys, "Science and Imperialism," Isis, 1993, 84:91-102;
11. Lewis Pyenson, "Cultural Imperialism and Exact Sciences Revisited," ibid., pp. 103-8.
12. See esp. Paul Rabinow, French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1995), pp. 277-319;
13. Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1991).
14. For a review of much of this literature, see Richard Keller, "Madness and Colonization: Psychiatry in the British and French Empires, 1800-1962," J. Soc- Hist., 2001, 35:295-326.
15. Particularly engaging examples include Jean-Michel Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française en Algérie, 1830-1939" (CES Mémoire, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1989);
16. Ashis Nandy, The Savage Freud and Other Essays on Possible and Retrievable Selves (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1995);
17. Françoise Vergès, "Chains of Madness, Chains of Colonialism: Fanon and Freedom," in The Fact of Blackness: Frantz Fanon and Visual Representation, ed. Alan Read (Seattle: Bay Press, 1996), pp. 46-75;
18. Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nigeria (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1999);
19. Christiane Hartnack, Psychoanalysis in Colonial India (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 2001);
20. Ranjana Khanna, Dark Continents: Colonialism and Psychoanalysis (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 2003).
21. Other important works include Waltraud Ernst, Mad Tales from the Raj: The European Insane in British India, 1800-1858 (New York: Routledge, 1991) ;
22. Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1991);
23. Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry and "the African Mind" (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995);
24. Robert Berthelier, L'homme maghrébin dans la littérature psychiatrique (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994);
25. Jalil Bennani, La psychanalyse au pays des saints: Les débuts de la psychiatrie et de la psychanalyse au Maroc (Casablanca: Le Fennec, 1996) ;
26. James Mills, Madness, Cannabis, and Colonialism: The "Native-Only " Lunatic Asylums of British India, 1858-1900 (New York: St. Martin's Press, 2000).
27. For accounts of the legend, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris: Synthélabo, 1998) ;
28. Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (Paris: Gallimard, 1972), pp. 593-96.
29. On the trope of sickness and suffering, see Joan Comaroff, "'The Diseased Heart of Africa': Medicine, Colonialism, and the Black Body," in Knowledge, Power, and Practice: The Anthropology of Medicine and Everyday Life, ed. Shirley Lindenbaum and Margaret Lock (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993), pp. 305-29;
30. Sander L. Gilman, Picturing Health and Illness: Images of Identity and Difference (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995), pp. 93-114.
31. Vergès, "Chains of Madness" (n. 5), pp. 50, 55.
32. See also Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie (n. 6), p. 95, who argues that this representation amounted to an "alibi" for psychiatric violence in the nineteenth-century asylum.
33. See esp. Foucault, Histoire de la folie (n. 6);
34. Andrew T. Scull, The Most Solitary of Afflictions: Madness and Society in Britain, 1700-1900 (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1993), pp. 115-74.
35. See Pelis, "Prophet for Profit" (n. 3);
36. Patricia M. E. Lorcin, Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Race in Colonial Algeria (London: Tauris, 1995);
37. idem, "Imperialism, Colonial Identity, and Race in Algeria, 1830-1870: The Role of the French Medical Corps," Isis, 1999, 90:653-79;
38. Michael A. Osborne, Nature, the Exotic, and the Science of French Colonialism (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994) ;
39. Kamel Kateb, Européens, "Indigènes" et Juifs en Algérie (1830-1962): Représentations et réalités des populations (Paris: Presses Universitaires de France, 2001).
40. For a more sympathetic view of these developments, see Marie-Claire Micouleau-Sicault, Les médecins français au Maroc (1912-1956): Combats en urgence (Paris: L'Harmattan, 2000).
41. Lorcin, "Imperialism" (n. 10), esp. p. 655.
42. See also Yvonne Turin, Affrontements culturels dans l'Algérie coloniale: Écoles, médecines, religion, 1830-1880 (Paris: Maspero, 1971).
43. Nancy Gallagher, Medicine and Power in Tunisia, 1780-1900 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), p. 82.
44. See Jonathan G. Katz, "The 1907 Mauchamp Affair and the French Civilising Mission in Morocco," in North Africa, Islam, and the Mediterranean World: From the Almoravids to the Algerian War, ed. Julia Clancy-Smith (London: Cass, 2001), pp. 143-66;
45. Jim Paul, "Medicine and Imperialism in Morocco," MERIP Rep., 1977, 60: 3-12.
46. See esp. A. Kocher, "De la criminalité chez les Arabes au point de vue de la pratique médico-judiciaire en Algérie" (med. thesis, Lyon, 1884);
47. Lorcin, Imperial Identities (n. 10).
48. Victor Trenga, L'âme arabo-berbere: Étude sociolagique sur la société musulmane nord-africaine (Algiers: Homar, 1913), p. 9.
49. See, e.g., Gustave Flaubert, Première éducation sentimentale (1845; reprint, Paris: Seuil, 1963), p. 242;
50. Gérard de Nerval, Aurélia, in idem, Oeuvres, ed. Henri Lemaître, 2 vols. (Paris: Garnier, 1958), 1: 758;
51. Alphonse de Lamartine, Voyage en Orient, in idem, Oeuvres complètes, 40 vols. (Paris, 1860-63), 6-8: 230;
52. Maxime du Camp, Le Nil, Égypte et Nubie (Paris, 1877), p. 39.
53. Also see Edward Said, Orientalism (New York: Vintage, 1978) ;
54. Lisa Lowe, Critical Terrains: French and British Orientalisms (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1991).
55. Guy de Maupassant, La vie errante (Paris: Ollendorff, 1903), pp. 203-4.
56. Guy de Maupassant, La vie errante, Ibid., p. 204.
57. Guy de Maupassant, La vie errante, Ibid., p. 206.
58. Guy de Maupassant, La vie errante, Ibid., p. 208.
59. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1987).
60. See also Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
61. e siècle," in Nouvelle histoire de la psychiatrie, ed. Jacques Postel and Claude Quétel (Paris: Dunod, 1994), pp. 314-26, on p. 317.
62. See also Goldstein, Console and Classify (n. 21), pp. 287-92.
63. e Colloque d'Histoire au Présent (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1994), pp. 365-73.
64. Jacques-Joseph Moreau (de Tours), Du haschish et de l'aliénation mentale: Études psychologiques (Paris: Masson, 1845).
65. Jacques-Joseph Moreau (de Tours), "Recherches sur les aliénés en Orient," Annales médico-psychologiques, 1843, 1: 103-32, quotation on p. 121.
66. See, e.g., James Ranald Martin, The Influence of Tropical Climates on European Constitutions (London: Churchill, 1856).
67. For histories of the intersection of such ideas with imperial expansion, see esp. Warwick Anderson, The Cultivation of Whiteness: Science, Health, and Racial Destiny in Australia (New York: Basic Books, 2003);
68. Harrison, Climates and Constitutions (n. 3).
69. See B.-A. Morel, Traité des dégénérescences physiques, intellectuelles, et morales de l'espèce humaine (Paris, 1857).
70. On the history of degeneration, see Daniel Pick, Faces of Degeneration: A European Disorder, 1848-1918 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988);
71. Robert Nye, Crime, Madness, and Politics in Modern France (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1984). Climatic hypotheses remained quite persuasive, however, in other medical domains:
72. see Warwick Anderson, "Immunities of Empire: Race, Disease, and the New Tropical Medicine," Bull. Hist. Med., 1996, 70: 94-118;
73. idem, "'The Trespass Speaks': White Masculinity and Colonial Breakdown," Amer. Hist. Rev., 1997, 102: 1343-70.
74. The following account is drawn from Maurice Desruelles and Henri Bersot, "L'assistance aux aliénés en Algérie depuis le XIXe siècle," Annales médico-psychologiques, 1939, 97 (2): 578-96;
75. Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion dans l'Afrique du Nord (1909; reprint, Paris: Maisonneuve, 1984);
76. Vincent Crapanzano, The Hamadsha: A Study in Moroccan Ethnopsychiatry (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973); and other texts cited below.
77. Michael W. Dois, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York: Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 124;
78. Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse: La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1998).
79. Abdelhamid Larguèche, Les ombres de la ville: Pauvres, marginaux et minoritaires à Tunis (XVHIème et XIXème siècles) (Tunis: Centre de Publication Universitaire, 1999), pp. 316-17.
80. See esp. Eric J. Engstrom, Clinical Psychiatry in Imperial Germany: A History of Psychiatric Practice (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 2003) ;
81. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry: From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York: Wiley, 1997), pp. 71-87.
82. See Goldstein, Console and Classify (n. 21), pp. 322-77.
83. On colonial development projects and their ideological foundations, see esp. Alice Conklin, A Mission to Civilize: The Republican Idea of Empire in France and West Africa, 1895-1930 (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1997).
84. Gaston Variot, "Une visite à l'hôpital arabe de Tunis," Revue scientifique de la France et de l'étranger, 1881, 3rd ser., 1:537-38, quotation on p. 537.
85. Gaston Variot, Revue scientifique de la France et de l'étranger, Ibid., p. 538.
86. Gaston Variot, Revue scientifique de la France et de l'étranger, Ibid., p. 537.
87. Gaston Variot, Revue scientifique de la France et de l'étranger, Ibid., p. 538.
88. Auguste Voisin, "Souvenirs d'un voyage en Tunisie (1896)," Annales médicopsychologiques, 1896, 54 (2): 89-90, quotation on p. 90.
89. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" (med. thesis, Lyon, 1909), pp. 11, 17.
90. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 24.
91. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., pp. 67, 51.
92. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., pp. 53-54.
93. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 60.
94. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 62.
95. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., pp. 60, 58.
96. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 57.
97. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 60.
98. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 71.
99. Henry Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" Ibid., p. 110.
100. L'oeuvre de la santé publique au Maroc (Paris: Copernic, 1951), pp. 5-6.
101. Georges Sicault, "Santé publique," p. 3, Maroc-Protectorat, Secrétariat Général du Protectorat 141, Centre des Archives Diplomatiques, Nantes (henceforth CADN).
102. Lucien Raynaud, Étude sur l'hygiène et la médecine au Maroc, suivie d'une notice sur la climatologie des principales villes de l'empire (Paris: Baillière, 1902), p. 46.
103. Ibid.
104. Lucien Raynaud, Étude sur l'hygiène et la médecine au Maroc, suivie d'une notice sur la climatologie des principales villes de l'empire, Ibid., p. 54.
105. Lucien Raynaud, Étude sur l'hygiène et la médecine au Maroc, suivie d'une notice sur la climatologie des principales villes de l'empire, Ibid., p. 55.
106. Lwoff and Sérieux, "Sur quelques moyens de contrainte" (n. 1), p. 169.
107. Lwoff and Sérieux, "Sur quelques moyens de contrainte" Ibid., p. 171.
108. Solomon Lwoff and Paul Sérieux, "Les aliénés au Maroc," Annales médico-psychologiques, 1911, 69(2): 470-79, quotation on p. 471.
109. Solomon Lwoff and Paul Sérieux, Annales médico- psychologiques, Ibid., p. 473.
110. Solomon Lwoff and Paul Sérieux, Annales médico- psychologiques, Ibid., p. 475.
111. Dr. Barbier, "Les fous et le mal de mer," Journal de médecine et de pharmacie de l'Algérie, 1884, 9:227-29, quotation on p. 228.
112. Barbier, Journal de médecine et de pharmacie de l'Algérie, Ibid., p. 229.
113. Auguste Voisin, "Les aliénés en Algérie," Annales médico-psychologiques, 1873, 31 (1): 491-92, quotation on p. 491.
114. Berthelier, L'homme maghrébin (n. 5), and
115. Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française" (n. 5), discuss many of the following sources concerning Algeria; neither, however, points to the Pinel myth's significance for colonial psychiatry, or to colonial psychiatry's efforts to revise metropolitan practices.
116. Paul Gérente, "Discussion du budget de l'Algérie (Exercice 1895)," offprint from Journal officiel de la République française (Paris, 1895), p. 45.
117. Paul Gérente and Henri Colin, Réforme de la loi du 30 juin 1838 sur les aliénés (Paris: Coueslant, 1911), p. 1, art. 50.
118. Abel-Joseph Meilhon, "L'aliénation mentale chez les Arabes: Étude de nosologie comparée," parts 1-6, Annales médico-psychologiques, 1896, 54 (1): 17-32, 177-207, 364-77; (2): 26-40, 204-20, 344-63.
119. Dr. Levet, "L'assistance des aliénés algériens dans un asile métropolitain," parts 1 and 2, Annales médico-psychologiques, 1909, 66: 45-67, 239-49, quotation on p. 56.
120. Levet, Annales médico-psychologiques, Ibid., pp. 243-44.
121. See also Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française" (n. 5), pp. 55-56.
122. Louis Livet, "Les aliénés algériens et leur hospitalisation" (med. thesis, Algiers, 1911), p. 79.
123. Louis Livet, "Les aliénés algériens et leur hospitalisation" Ibid., p. 26.
124. See Kocher, "De la criminalité chez les Arabes" (n. 14);
125. Meilhon, "L'aliénation mentale" (n. 66), p. 178;
126. Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française" (n. 5), pp. 91-99.
127. Livet, "Les aliénés algériens" (n. 69), pp. 34-35, 43.
128. Dr. Rouby, "Un aliéné arabe en liberté," Bulletin médical de l'Algérie, 1905, 17:573-77, quotation on p. 574.
129. Comptes rendus du Congrès des médecins aliénistes et neurologistes de France et des pays de langue française, XVIII' Session, Dijon, 1908, 2 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1908), 2: 243-45, quotation on p. 244. (Henceforth Congrès, location, and date.)
130. Congrès, Tunis, 1912, 2: 25.
131. Congrès, Ibid., 1: 9.
132. Congrès, Ibid., 2: 20.
133. Congrès, Ibid., p. 21.
134. Congrès, Ibid., 1:56.
135. Congrès, Ibid., p. 47.
136. Congrès, Ibid., pp. 75-76.
137. Congrès, (n. 39), p. 99.
138. Congrès, Ibid., p. 101 (emphasis in the original).
139. Congrès, Ibid., pp. 109-10.
140. Congrès, Ibid., p. 113.
141. Antoine Porot, "Résultats d'une expérience de 'Service ouvert' pour psychopathes en Tunisie," Informateur des aliénistes, 1923, 18: 111-14, quotation on p. 112.
142. Antoine Porot, Informateur des aliénistes, Ibid., p. 112.
143. Antoine Porot, Informateur des aliénistes, Ibid.
144. Antoine Porot, Informateur des aliénistes, Ibid., p. 114.
145. Congrès, Tunis, 1912, 1: 58, 73.
146. Congrès, Ibid., pp. 195-97, quotation on p. 197.
147. See, e.g., Édouard Toulouse, "Les hôpitaux et services d'observation et de traitement," Revue de psychiatrie, 1899, 3: 165-78;
148. Bouquet, "Les aliénés en Tunisie" (n. 39), p. 101.
149. On the history of the French mental hygiene movement, see Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale, 2 vols. (Paris: L'Harmattan, 1997).
150. Édouard Toulouse and Roger Dupouy, "De la transformation des asiles d'aliénés en hôpitaux psychiatriques," Hygiène mentale, 1927, 22:83-89, quotation on p. 83.
151. Ibid.
152. 22 529.
153. 22 529.
154. Indeed, the Association amicale des médecins aliénistes attempted to expel Toulouse in the early 1930s over his ideas: see Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale (n. 92), 2: 103-9.
155. Many protested Porot's system as well: see the comments of Dr. Guiraud in the discussion following Antoine Porot, "Les services hospitaliers de psychiatrie en Afrique du Nord (Algérie et Tunisie)," Annales médico-psychologiques, 1936, 15th ser., 1: 793-806, on pp. 804-5.
156. André Antheaume, "Chronique: L'actualité neuro-psychiatrique," L'informateur des aliénistes et des neurologistes, 1925, 20: 97-121;
157. and erratum note in idem, "L'évolution de l'assistance psychiatrique vers les services ouverts sans internement," L'informateur des aliénistes et des neurologistes, ibid., p. 148 n. 1.
158. For other examples, see Toulouse and Dupouy, "Les services ouverts" (n. 95), pp. 5-6.
159. Lwoff and Sérieux to Préfecture du Départment de la Seine, 29 December 1918, Archives du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris (hereafter MAE) - Maroc 1283, M-63-3.
160. Lyautey to Guillain, 17 March 1933, printed in Congrès, Rabat, 1933, 1: 73.
161. Théodore Steeg, quoted in Gouvernement général de l'Algérie, Procès-verbaux des Assemblées financières algériennes: Délégation Colons, Session Extraordinaire de 1923 (hereafter AFA), 4 vols. (Algiers: Société anonyme d'imprimerie rapide, 1923), 2: 66-67.
162. Régence de Tunis, Protectorat Français, Procès-Verbaux du Grand Conseil de la Tunisie, IV' Session (Décembre 1925) (hereafter GCT) (Tunis: Société Anonyme d'Imprimerie Rapide, 1926), Section française, p. 150.
163. Résident-Général to Contrôleurs-Civils, 15 April 1921, Archives Nationales de la Tunisie, Tunis, Série E, 607 9/1, no. 14.
164. Contrôleur-Civil de Kairouan to Résident- Général, 12 August 1921, Archives Nationales de la Tunisie, ibid., no. 72.
165. Ann Laura Stoler, Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's "History of Sexuality" and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N.C.: Duke University Press, 1995), p. 39.
166. Prakash, Another Reason (n. 3), pp. 130-32.
167. See also Bernard S. Cohn, "The Census, Social Structure, and Objectification in South Asia," in idem, An Anthropologist among the Historians and Other Essays (Delhi: Oxford University Press, 1990), pp. 224-54.
168. GCTIV (December 1925), Section indigène, p. 98.
169. Section indigène, Ibid., Section française, p. 339.
170. Ibid.
171. Pierre Even, "La protection de la santé publique en Tunisie," unpub. report, 1926, pp. 5-6, MAE - Tunisie 1917-1940, no. 301, P-73-1, dossier no. 1, pp. 5-6.
172. Pierre Even, "La protection de la santé publique en Tunisie," Ibid., p. 7.
173. Pierre Even, "La protection de la santé publique en Tunisie," Ibid., pp. 48-49.
174. Perrussel, cited in Roger Mignot, "Les Journées Médicales Tunisiennes et l'assistance des aliénés en Tunisie," Hygiène mentale, 1926, 21 (6): 159-64, quotation on p. 163.
175. GCTIV (December 1925), Section française, 22 December 1925, pp. 324, 337, 345; 23 December 1925, p. 370.
176. GCTV (December 1926), Rapport général de la Commission des Travaux Publics et de l'Administration générale.
177. Lwoffand Sérieux to Préfecture du Départment de la Seine, 29 December 1918, MAE - Maroc 1283, M-63-3.
178. Wright, Politics of Design (n. 4), p. 92.
179. Rabinow, French Modern (n. 4), pp. 284-87.
180. Gwendolyn Wright, "Tradition in the Service of Modernity: Architecture and Urbanism in French Colonial Policy, 1900-1930," J. Mod. Hist., 1987, 59(2): 291-316, on p. 299.
181. Memorandum no. 49 from MAE to Monsieur Lyautey, 8 January 1919, MAE - Maroc 1283, M-63-3.
182. Congrès, Rabat, 1933, p. 478.
183. Marise Pénale, Le Maroc à 60 Kms à l'heure (Casablanca: Imprimeries Réunies, 1936), p. 234.
184. Anonymous report from Grand Orient de France to MAE, MAE - Maroc 1283, M-63-3.
185. Ibid.
186. Letter no. 1971 from Lyautey to MAE, 19 August 1925, ibid.
187. Ibid.
188. Marise Périale, "Les formations neuro-psychiatriques du Maroc," Paris médical, 25 January 1936, pp. 83-88, quotation on p. 84.
189. Marise Périale, Paris médical, Ibid., pp. 84-85.
190. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. Constance Farrington (New York: Grove, 1965), pp. 296-304.
191. Antoine Porot, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Algérie et le futur Ho̧pital psychiatrique de Blida," L'Algérie médicale, 1933, 65:86-92, quotation on p. 87.
192. Antoine Porot, L'Algérie médicale, Ibid., p. 90.
193. Antoine Porot, L'Algérie médicale, Ibid., p. 90.
194. Antoine Porot, L'Algérie médicale, Ibid., Ibid., pp. 90-91.
195. AFA 1929, 1:580-81.
196. AFA 1929, Ibid., p. 578.
197. On anxieties provoked by North African immigration, see Clifford Rosenberg, "Albert Sarraut and Republican Racial Thought," French Polit. Cult. & Soc., 2002, 20 (3): 97-114;
198. idem, "The Colonial Politics of Healthcare Provision in Interwar Paris," French Hist. Stud., 2004, 27: 637-68;
199. Mary Lewis, "The Company of Strangers: Immigration and Citizenship in Interwar Lyon and Marseille" (Ph.D. diss., New York University, 2000).
200. Antoine Porot, "Dernier mot - en réponse à M. Dumolard - sur l'assistance psychiatrique en Algérie," Hygiène mentale, 1926, 21 (6): 145;
201. Paul Sauzay, "L'assistance aux psychopathes (alifénés et non aliénés) en Algérie: État actuel de la question" (med. thesis, Algiers, 1925), p. 38.
202. On these particular aspects of the campaign, see Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française" (n. 5), p. 66.
203. Don Côme Arrii, "De l'impulsivité criminelle chez l'indigène algérien" (med. thesis, Algiers, 1926), p. 51.
204. Don Côme Arrii, "De l'impulsivité criminelle chez l'indigène algérien" Ibid., p. 13.
205. Don Côme Arrii, "De l'impulsivité criminelle chez l'indigène algérien" Ibid., p. 51.
206. Luccioni to M. le Conseiller, 8 October 1951, CADN - Maroc Protectorat, Direction de l'Intérieur 615.
207. As Sadowsky (Imperial Bedlam [n. 5], p. 25) has noted in the case of Nigerian asylums, these institutions that were "[c]reated in response to the scandal of untreated
208. lunatics on the streets ... themselves became enduring scandals of the colonial period." For examples of how these institutions were celebrated in the press, see "Une grande belle oeuvre française," La dépêche tunisienne, 19 February 1931, p. 1;
209. "Le traitement des aliénés en Algérie," Echo d'Alger, 3 July 1933, p. 3.
210. See Fanon, Wretched of the Earth (n. 128), pp. 296-304;
211. but also Frantz Fanon, A Dying Colonialism, trans. Haakon Chevalier (New York: Grove, 1965), pp. 121-45, esp. pp. 124n. 1 and 135.
212. Interview with Newine Eschadely (Tunis, 14 May 2000). See also Saîda Douki, "Rapport concernant la demande de réhabilitation de feu le Docteur Salem Esch-Chadely," unpub. report, 6 September 1993, Esch-Chadely Papers (private collection, Tunis);
213. Adel BenYoussef, "Le Docteur Salem Eschadely," Revue sadikienne, 2000, 19:3-10;
214. interview with M. Ennabli, cited in Abdelhamid Bouzgarrou, "A propos d'une expérience de Transformation Institutionnelle au niveau d'un service de psychiatrie" (med. thesis, Tunis, 1978-79), p. 4.
215. Dr. Couderc, "L'assistance psychiatrique dans le Département d'Oran (Algérie)," Information psychiatrique, 1955, 31 (4): 19-23.
216. Raoul Vadon, "L'assistance médicale des psychopathes en Tunisie" (med. thesis, Marseilles, 1935), p. 28.
217. Pierre Maréschal, "Réflexions sur vingt ans de psychiatrie en Tunisie," La raison, 1956, 15:69-79, on p. 73.
218. See, e.g., Khanna, Dark Continents (n. 5), p. 150.
219. Peter Geismar, Fanon (New York: Dial, 1971);
220. I rene Gendzier, Frantz Fanon: A Critical Study (New York: Pantheon, 1973), p. 76;
221. Jock McCulloch, Black Soul, White Artifact: Fanon's Clinical Psychology and Social Theory (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983), esp. pp. 101-7;
222. Hussein Bulhan, Frantz Fanon and the Psychology of Oppression (New York: Plenum, 1985), esp. pp. 207-25;
223. Hanafy Youssef and Salah Fadl, "Frantz Fanon and Political Psychiatry," Hist. Psychiatry (1996), 7:525-32.
224. Vergès, "Chains of Madness" (n. 5).
225. See also interviews with Alice Cherki and Jacques Azoulay in Isaac Julien's film Frantz Fanon: Black Skin, White Mask (U.K., 1996).