Immunities of empire: Race, disease, and the new tropical medicine, 1900-1920

Bulletin of the History of Medicine

Volumn 70, Issue 1, 1996, Pages 94-118

  Anderson, Warwick ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ARTICLE; HISTORY; HUMAN; IMMUNITY; PHILIPPINES; POLITICAL SYSTEM; RACE; TROPIC CLIMATE; TROPICAL MEDICINE; UNITED STATES;

COLONIALISM; CONTINENTAL POPULATION GROUPS; HISTORY, 19TH CENTURY; HISTORY, 20TH CENTURY; HUMANS; IMMUNITY; PHILIPPINES; TROPICAL CLIMATE; TROPICAL MEDICINE; UNITED STATES;

EID: 0030092855     PISSN: 00075140     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/bhm.1996.0002     Document Type: Review

References (149)

1. Nathaniel S. Shaler, "The Future of the Negro in the Southern States," Pop. Sci. Monthly, June 1900, 57: 151.
2. On Shaler, the "forefather of American geography," see David N. Livingstone, "Science and Society: Nathaniel S. Shaler and Racial Ideology," Trans. Inst. Brit. Geog., 1984, 9: 181-210.
3. On racial classification in American medicine, see George M. Fredrickson, The Black image in the White Mind: The Debate on Afro-American Character and Destiny, 1817-1944 (New York: Harperand Row, 1971);
4. and John S. Haller, Jr., Outcasts from Involution: Scientific Attitudes of Racial Inferiority, 1859-1900 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1971).
5. Nathaniel S. Shaler, "The Transplantation of a Race," Pop. Sci. Monthly, March 1900, 56: 521. Shaler was surprised at how well Africans - those "tropical exotics" - had acclimatized to temperate North America. They had withstood their "trials of deportation in a marvellous way," with no particular liability to disease, or impairment of fecundity (p. 514). He supposed this was because slave-owners had carefully managed their health and breeding (p. 518).
6. R. L. Bullard, "Some Characteristics of the Negro Volunteer," J. Milit. Service Inst. United States (henceforth JMSI), 1901, 29: 29-39, quotation on p. 29.
7. R. L. Bullard, J. Milit. Service Inst. United States Ibid., pp. 30-31. Bullard had ensured that "men with a larger proportion of white blood [were] rejected" (p. 30).
8. See also Willard B. Gatewood, Jr., Black Americans and the White Man's Burden, 1898-1903 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1975), esp. pp. 297-309.
9. Charles D. Rhodes, "The Utilization of Foreign Troops in Our Foreign Possessions," JMSI, 1902, 30: 1-26, quotations on pp. 7 and 6.
10. Charles D. Rhodes, JMSI, Ibid., p. 7.
11. To "eliminate one of the greatest problems besetting an army on a foreign shore, that of acclimatization," Maj. Louis L. Seaman suggested raising friendly "native regiments," just as Britain had for many years ("Native Troops for Our Colonial Possessions," J. Assoc. Milit. Surgeons [henceforth JAMS], 1901-2, 10: 240).
12. The last is a common formulation in the Philippines in the early nineteenth century: see C. R. Greenleaf to G. M. Sternberg, 30 January 1900, File 57592/76, p. 14, Record Group 112-E26, United States National Archives, Washington, D.C. (henceforth USNA).
13. On ideas of predisposition during the nineteenth century, see Christopher Hamlin, "Predisposing Causes and Public Health in Early Nineteenth-Century Medical Thought," Soc. Hist. Med., 1992, 5: 43-70;
14. and Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Therapeutic Revolution: Medicine, Meaning, and Social Change in Nineteenth-Century America," in The Therapeutic Revolution: Essays in the Social History of American Mediane, ed. Morris J. Vogel and Charles E. Rosenberg (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1979), pp. 3-25.
15. On hereditarian thought, see Charles E. Rosenberg, "The Bitter Fruit: Heredity, Disease, and Social Thought," in No Other Gods: On Science and American Social Thought (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), pp. 25-53.
16. The seed and soil analogy - from the parable of St. Matthew - was a popular one well into the early twentieth century. See, for instance, Stephen MacKenzie, "The Powers of Natural Resistance, or the Personal Factor in Disease of Microbic Origin," Lancet, 31 May 1902, I: 1513-17. MacKenzie lamented that "the tendency of the medical mind at the present time seems to be to attach too great importance to the germ or seed and too little to that of the body or soil in diseases of microbic origin" (p. 1513).
17. W. S. Washburn, "Health Conditions in the Philippines," Philippine J. Sci., 1908, 3B: 273.
18. Paul C. Freer, "A Consideration of Some of the Modern Theories of Immunity," Philippine J. Sci., 1907, 2B: 74. Freer was the director of the Bureau of Science.
19. James A. LeRoy suggests that, although "the anthropologist is puzzled in his endeavor to untangle the racial knots of the Pacific and to classify people even on broad, general lines," the fact that the "native stock of the Philippine Islands is Malayan is one of those things that have been recognized 'always, everywhere, and by all'" (Philippine Life in Town and Country [New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1906], pp 20, 14).
20. But this racial typology was perhaps not so obvious to Filipinos themselves. William B. Freer gives this example of the "stupidity" - orperhaps resistance - of his Filipino students: "After attempting to teach the class of beginners for several days respecting the five races of mankind, the color and name of each. . . . I requested a middle-aged man, in English, to tell me to what race he belonged. He appeared not to understand, even after several repetitions of the question in both English and Spanish. I then had a fellow student put the question in his own dialect, the Gaddan. . . . The poor fellow stood up, scratched his head, and averred he was an African" (The Philippine Experiences of an American Teacher: A Narrative of Work and Travel in the Philippine Islands [New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1906], p. 105).
21. See Mark Harrison, "'The Tender Frame of Man': Disease, Climate, and Racial Difference in India and the West Indies, 1760-1860," Bull. Hist. Med., this issue.
22. For surveys of the debate on human acclimatization, see David N. Livingstone, "Human Acclimatization: Perspectives on a Contested Field of Inquiry in Science, Medicine and Geography," Hist. Sci., 1987, 25: 359-94;
23. and Dane Kennedy, "The Perils of the Midday Sun: Climatic Anxieties in the Colonial Tropics," in Imperialism and the Natural World, ed. John D. MacKenzie (Manchester: Manchester University Press, 1990), pp. 118-40.
24. J.J. Curry, "Notes on the Diseases of the Philippine Islands," Report to the Surgeon-General (c. 1900), File 68075/G, p. 31, Record Group 112-E26, USNA.
25. Henry F. Hoyt, "Appendix," in Report of the Philippines Commission to the President, 3 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1900), 1: 262.
26. W. B. Freer, Philippine Experiences (n. 12), p. 188.
27. Charles F. Mason, "Notes from the Experiences of a Medical Officer in the Tropics," JAMS, 1903, 13: 309.
28. Emily Bronson Conger, An Ohio Woman in the Philippines (Cleveland, Ohio: Arthur H. Clark, 1904), pp. 133-34.
29. For an analysis of the general patterns of mortality and morbidity in colonial military forces, see Philip D. Curtin, Death by Migration: Europe's Encounter with the Tropical World in the Nineteenth Century (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989). Although the British in India - and the French and the Dutch elsewhere - had been compiling morbidity and mortality statistics for their colonial armies since the 1860s, these statistics were never regarded as complete enough or representative enough to formulate a detailed account of the natural immunities to specific diseases of nonmilitary populations. (I emphasize here the colonial literature on racial immunity because the racial migrations implied by imperialism exaggerated race as an organizing principle for immunity. Race was a less important factor in more stable and homogeneous societies, but it was never irrelevant.
30. See, for instance, the debate on the immunity of Jews: E. M. Epstein, "Have the Jews Any Immunity from Certain Diseases?" Med. Surg. Reporter, 9 May 1874, 30: 440-42;
31. Madison Marsh, "Have the Jews Any Immunity from Certain Diseases?Med. Surg. Reporter, " ibid., 15 August 1874, 31: 132-34.
32. Of course there was also much speculation on the character of African racial immunity in the United States: see, for example, Frederick Hoffman, "Vital Statistics of the Negro," Med. News, 22 September 1894, p. 322;
33. and Daniel D. Quillian, "Racial Peculiarities as a Cause of the Prevalence of Syphilis in Negroes," Amer. J. Dermat. Genito-Urin. Dis., 1906, 10: 277-79.
34. It comes as no surprise to find Nathaniel S. Shaler at the end of the century still urging a scientific investigation to determine finally if the Negro was "relatively less liable to certain forms of disease than whites, and . . . more open to invasions of other maladies than European races" ["Our Negro Types," Current Literature, Arthritis and Related Diseases, July 1900, 29: 47].)
35. Edward John Waring, "Statistical Notes on Some of the Diseases of India," Indian Ann. Med. Sci., 1856, 6: 508.
36. Joseph Ewart, "Phthisis in India," Indian Ann. Med. Sci., 1868, 24: 157.
37. August Hirsch, Handbuch der historisch-geographischen Pathologie, 3 vols. (Stuttgart: F Enke, 1881-86; London: New Sydenham Society, 1883).
38. Armand de Quatrefages, The Human Species (New York: D. Appleton, 1883), p. 426. Quatrefages points out that while most diseases are common to all races, "one race may be either more liable to or more susceptible to certain afflictions than another" (p. 423). He calls this "an ethnological immunity" (p. 427).
39. Kenneth MacLeod, "The Scope and Aim of the Section's work," Brit. Med. J., 4 August 1900, 2: 295;
40. Col. MacLeod, of the Indian Medical Service, was delivering his presidential address to the British Medical Association's section on tropical diseases. Of course the extent of racial susceptibility depended both on the sum total of all predisposing factors operating within each individual and on what Charles Rosenberg has called the "individuality of the disease entity" ("Cholera in Nineteenth-Century Europe: A Tool for Social and Economic Analysis," Comp. Stud. Soc. Hist., 1966, 8: 453). Thus the strongest racial immunities were to endemic, rather than epidemic, diseases. And in the case of a disease like cholera it was often thought that insanitary living conditions could overwhelm any racial resistance. But in assessing racial immunities, it was always necessary to consider case mortality as well as prevalence.
41. A. Bordier, La géographie médicale: La colonisation scientifique (Paris: C. Reinwald, 1884), p. 472;
42. A. Jousset, Traité de l'acclimatement et de l'acclimatation (Paris: O. Doin, 1884), p. 211. Jousset attributes this to the less developed chests of black races (p. 85) and their poor respiratory power (p. 88).
43. Quatrefages, Human Species (n. 23), p. 426.
44. Hirsch, Handbuch (n. 22), 3: 595.
45. R. Clarke, quoted in W. Z. Ripley, "Acclimatization," Pop. Sci. Monthly, 1895, 48: 671. (Ripley was then a professor of sociology and economics at MIT.)
46. Rosenberg makes this point in "Bitter Fruit" (n. 8).
47. See Curtin, Death by Migration (n. 19). Curtin points out that the death rates for whites in many tropical colonies had been falling since the 1850s, long before any major revision of theories of racial immunity.
48. Ewart, "Phthisis in India" (n. 21), p. 157. Of course, many commentators extrapolated from the resistance of many West African populations to malaria, a result of the prevalence of the sickle cell trait (though not then recognized as such).
49. Bordier, Géographie médicale (n. 25), p. 39.
50. Paul Topinard, Eléments d'anthropologie générale (Paris: A. Delahaye et E. Lecrosnier, 1885), p. 204.
51. Ripley, "Acclimatization" (n. 28), p. 671.
52. S. P. Desmartis, Quelques mois sur le pruphylaxis (Paris, 1859),
53. quoted in James Hunt, "On Ethnoclimatology or the Acclimatization of Man," Proceedings af the British Association for the Advancement of Science, 1861 (London: James Murray, 1862), p. 143.
54. Bordier, cited in "Injections of the Blood of Negroes in Yellow Fever," Med. Rec., 14 November 1891, 40: 615.
55. Albert S. Ashmead, "A Claim of Priority: Attempt to Communicate Artificial Immunity," JAMA, 1892, 18: 381.
56. Ashmead collated many accounts of racial immunities in "Racial Immunity and Inoculation, and Secular Restriction of Certain Diseases to Particular Localities before Commerce Disseminated Them," Med. Rec., 16 April 1892, 41; 430-34.
57. Hamilton Stone, "Our Troops in the Tropics-From the Surgeon's Standpoint," JMSI, 1900, 26: 361.
58. Mason, "Notes" (n. 17), p. 309.
59. Hamilton Stone declared: "Given an enlisted man of average strength and intelligence who lives in clean government quarters, eating the ration, drinking boiled water, who is particular as to his personal cleanliness, who wears and frequently changes his underwear, who keeps good hours, who has neither alcoholic, venereal nor tobacco excesses, who uses his best judgement and the surgeon's advice in satisfying his passions, who avoids the filthy places in the cities, and who is blessed with a detachment commander who conscientiously looks after the interests of his men, and I guarantee to him in the tropics a health record equal to my own" ("Our Troops in the Tropics" [n. 38], p. 365).
60. Report of the Secretary of War on the Philippines, in Report of the Philippine Commission to the President, 1907 (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1908), 3: 287.
61. See also Dean C. Worcester, The Philippines Past and Present (New York: Macmillan, 1930), pp. 358-87.
62. Recourse to hill stations had long been popular in most tropical colonies. See, for instance, Norman Chevers, "A Brief Review of the Means of Preserving the Health of European Soldiers in India," Indian Ann. Med. Sci., 1859, 12: 577-812;
63. and J. Collins, "Effects of the Climate of the Darjeeling Hills on the Constitution of Europeans,Indian Ann. Med. Sci., " ibid., 1860, 13: 1-8.
64. Dane Kennedy has described this medical prescription in "Perils of the Midday Sun" (n. 13).
65. W. Cameron Forbes, quoted in V. G. Heiser, Annual Report of the Bureau of Health for the Philippine Islands, July 1912-June 1913 (Manila: Bureau of Printing, 1913), File 3465/59, p. 63, RG 350, USNA.
66. Fred W. Atkinson, The Philippine Islands (Boston: Ginn, 1905), p. 153.
67. Edith Moses, Unofficial Letters of an Official's Wife (New York: D. Appleton, 1908), pp. 239-40.
68. Worcester, Philippines (n. 40), p. 379.
69. Ralph Kent Buckland, In the Land of the Filipino (New York: Every Where Publishing, 1912), p. 231.
70. Mary H. Fee, A Woman's Impressions of the Philippines (Chicago: A. C. McClurg, 1910), p. 236.
71. W. Cameron Forbes, "Journals," 19 October 1907, 2: 324-25, File fMS Am 1365, Forbes Papers, Houghton Library, Harvard University, Cambridge, Mass.
72. W. B. Freer, Philippine Experiences (n. 12), p. 144.
73. Conger, Ohio Woman (n. 18), pp. 159, 51, 148.
74. On the history of immunology, see Anne Marie Moulin, Le dernier langage de la médicine: Histoire de l'immunologie de Pasteur au Sida (Paris: P.U.F., 1991), esp. pp. 24-36;
75. and Arthur M. Silverstein, A History of Immunology (San Diego: Academic Press, 1989).
76. (Warwick Anderson, Myles Jackson, and Barbara Gutmann Rosenkrantz have recently argued that the history of immunology should include now-discredited research interests such as the study of racial immunity: "Toward an Unnatural History of Immunology," J. Hist. Biol., 1994, 27: 575-94).
77. On the expansion of the laboratory during this period, see Bruno Latour, The Pasteurization of France, trans. Alan Sheridan and John Law (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1988).
78. Louis Pasteur, Oeuvres de Pasteur, ed. Pasteur Valéry-Radot, 7 vols. (Paris: Masson, 1922-39), 6: 315.
79. For a criticism of Pasteur that anticipates Metchnikoff, see G. M. Sternberg, "What Is the Explanation of the Protection from Subsequent Attacks, Resulting from an Attack of Certain Diseases, and of the Protective Influence of Vaccination against Smallpox," Amer. J. Med. Sci., 1881, 18: 373-78.
80. M. von Nencki, "Uber die Lebensfähigkeit der Spaltpilze bei fehlendem Sauenstoff," J. Prakt. Chem., May 1879, 9: 337-58;
81. cited in Silverstein, History of Immunology (n. 50), p. 19.
82. Sternberg, "Explanation of Protection" (n. 51), p. 377.
83. Elie Metchnikoff, "Ueber eine Sprosspilzkrankeit des Daphnien . . .," Virchows Arch., 1884, 96: 177-95;
84. translated as "A Disease of Daphnia Caused by a Yeast: A Contribution to the Theory of Phagocytes as Agents for Attack on Disease-Causing Organisms," in Milestones in Microbiology, ed. Thomas D. Brock (Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall, 1961), pp. 132-38.
85. See also E. Metchnikoff, Lectures on the Comparative Pathology of Inflammation (London: Kegan Paul, Trench, Trübner, 1893).
86. For a discussion of the intellectual context, see Alfred I. Tauber and Leon Chernyak, Metchnikoff and the Origins of Immunology: From Metaphor to Theory (New York: Oxford University Press, 1991).
87. H. Büchner, Eine neue Theorie über Erzielung von Immunitätgegen Infectionskrankheiten (Munich: Oldenbourg, 1883).
88. E. von Behring and S. Kitasato, "Ueber das Zustandekommen der Diphtherie-Immunität und der Tetanus-Immunität bei Thieren," Deutsche med. Wochenschr., 1890, 16: 1113-14;
89. translated as "The Mechanism of Immunity in Animals to Diphtheria and Tetanus," in Brock, Milestones in Microbiology (n. 54), pp. 138-40.
90. E. H. Hankin, "Report on the Conflict between the Organism and the Microbe," Brit. Med. J., 12 July 1890, 2: 65-68;
91. E. H. Hankin, idem, "Cures for Infectious Diseases,Brit. Med. J., " ibid., 28 February 1891, 1: 456-57.
92. For the American reception of this research, see A. C. Abbot, "A Review of Some of the More Important Contributions to Our Knowledge upon Immunity and Infection," Med. News, 1891, 59: 534-40;
93. and G. W. Finley, "Thoughts on Vital Resistance to Disease - Immunity, Natural and Acquired," JAMA, 1896, 26: 211-13.
94. F. G. Clemow, The Geography of Disease (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1903), p. 5.
95. For the most complete compendium of supposed racial immunities, see Ripley, "Acclimatization" (n. 28).
96. MacLeod, "Scope and Aim" (n. 24), p. 295.
97. George M. Sternberg, Infection and Immunity, with Special Reference to the Prevention of Infectious Diseases (New York: G. P. Putnam's Sons, 1903), p. 24.
98. Reference to racial immunity is very rare by the 1920s, but see Ralph W. Mendelson, "Natural Immunity to Infection and Resistance to Disease, as Exhibited by the Oriental, with Special Reference to Siamese," Philippine J. Sci., 1923, 22: 115-23.
99. P. E. Garrison et al., "Medical Survey of Taytay," Philippine J. Sci., 1909, 4B: 257-68.
100. On the development of the idea of carrier status in the 1890s by Robert Koch and William H. Park, see Charles-Edward A. Winslow, The Conquest of Epidemic Disease: A Chapter in the History of Ideas (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1980), chap. 16, pp. 337-46.
101. Weston P. Chamberlain et al., "Examinations of Stools and Blood among the Igorots at Baguio, Philippine Islands," Philippine J. Sci., 1910, 5B: 505-14.
102. P. E. Garrison, "The Prevalence and Distribution of the Animal Parasites of Man in the Philippine Islands, with a Consideration of Their Possible Influence upon Public Health," Philippine J. Sci., 1908, 3B: 205.
103. E. L. Munson, "Cholera Carriers in Relation to Cholera Control," Philippine J. Sci., 1915, 10B: 5, 9.
104. See also Otto Shōbl, "Observations Concerning Cholera CarriersPhilippine J. Sci., ," ibid., pp. 11-17.
105. Patrick Manson, Tropical Diseases: A Manual of the Diseases of Warm Climates, 5th ed. (London: Cassell, 1914), p. 368.
106. V. C. Vaughan, Infection and Immunity (Chicago: AMA, 1915), p. 179.
107. See also V. C. Vaughan, idem, "The Principles of Immunity and Cure in the Infectious Diseases," Transactions of the Pan-American Medical Congress, Washington, 1893, 2 vols. (Washington, D.C.: Government Printing Office, 1895), 1: 152-65.
108. Hans Zinsser discusses the limitations of the immunities of race in Infection and Resistance: An Exposition of the Biological Phenomena Underlying the Occurrence of Infection and the Recovery of the Animal Body from Infectious Disease, 2nd ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1922), chap. 3; he concludes, rather equivocally, that "it is by no means certain that there may not be a very slight, but through generations gradually accumulating, inheritance of immunity" (p. 58).
109. Aldo Castellani and Albert Chalmers, Manual of Tropical Medicine (New York: Ballière, Tindall and Cox, 1920), p. 115.
110. H. Lippincott to G. M. Sternberg, 31 March 1899, File 57592/A, p. 7, RG 112-E26, USNA.
111. Joseph A. Guthrie, "Some Observations while in the Philippines," JAMS, 1903, 13: 148.
112. See Warwick Anderson, "Excremental Colonialism: Public Health and the Poetics of Pollution," Crit. Inquiry, 1995, 21: 640-69.
113. LeRoy, Philippine Life (n. 12), p. 54.
114. Moses, Unofficial Letters (n. 43), p. 222.
115. P. Freer, "Modern Theories of Immunity" (n. 11), p. 75.
116. For a typically confident account of the field's potential, see W. M. Haffkine, "On Preventive Inoculation," J. Trop. Med., 1899, 2: 322-27.
117. Victor G. Heiser, An American Doctor's Odyssey: Adventures in Forty-Five Countries (New York: W. W. Norton, 1936), p. 37.
118. In view of such marked similarities between tropical hygiene and occupational medicine, Heiser's subsequent career with the National Association of Manufacturers has a certain logic. See Warwick Anderson, "Victor G. Heiser," American National Biography (forthcoming).
119. H. L. Kneedler to Woodrow Wilson, 13 March 1913, File 2394-35, RG 350, USNA. Kneedler was a physician who had practiced in the Philippines since the American occupation.
120. Heiser, American Doctor's Odyssey (n. 74), p. 47.
121. MacLeod, "Scope and Aim" (n. 24), p. 296.
122. C. W. Daniels, "Filariae and Filarial Disease in British Guiana," J. Trop. Med., 1898, 1: 15.
123. Martin Hahn in Kolle und Wassermann's Handbuch, vol. 1;
124. quoted in Vaughan, Infection and Immunity (n. 66), p. 179.
125. The persistence of older preventive measures - especially those which had some experiential validation for patients and physicians alike - is similar to the therapeutic conservatism described in John Harley Warner, The Therapeutic Perspective: Medical Practice, Knowledge, and Identity in America, 1820-1885 (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1986).
126. These methods are described in detail in Warwick Anderson, "Colonial Pathologies: American Medicine in the Philippines, 1898-1920" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1992), chap. 3.
127. See also Nicholas Thomas, "Sanitation and Seeing: The Creation of State Power in Early Colonial Fiji," Comp. Stud. Soc. Hist., 1990, 32: 149-70.
128. On neo-Lamarckism during this period, see Peter J. Bowler, Evolution: The History of an Idea (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984), pp. 243-53;
129. and George W. Stocking, Jr., "Lamarckianism in American Social Science, 1890-1915," in Race, Culture, and Evolution: Essays in the History of Anthropology (New York: Free Press, 1968), pp. 234-69.
130. After 1910, Franz Boas challenged the physical anthropologists' argument that cultural achievements were the result of racial composition, but his influence clearly did not extend to the Philippines during this period. See Franz Boas, Mind of Primitive Man, rev. ed. (New York: Macmillan, 1938 [1911]).
131. His work reflects the growing appreciation of the historical shaping of culture among populations. See also George W. Stocking, Jr., "Franz Boas and the Culture Concept in Historical Perspective," in Race, Culture, and Evolution (n. 82), pp. 195-233;
132. and Stephen Horigan, Nature and Culture in Western Discourse (NewYork: Routledge, 1988).
133. Allan J. MacLaughlan, "The Suppression of a Cholera Epidemic in Manila," Philippine J. Sci., 1909, 4B: 55.
134. Victor G. Heiser, "Unsolved Health Problems Peculiar to the Philippines," Philippine J. Sci., 1910, 5: 176.
135. Thomas W. Jackson, "Sanitary Conditions and Needs in Provincial Towns," Philippine J. Sci., 1908, 3B: 432.
136. Philippine J. Sci., Ibid., pp. 435-36.
137. Chief Surgeon, Philippines Division, to Surgeon General, Washington, D.C., 31 December 1909, File 24508/120, p. 12, RG 112-E26, USNA. See also the "Report on Typhoid Fever," 30 September 1909, File 68075/73, RG 112-E26.
138. Chief Surgeon to Surgeon General (n. 87), p. 13.
139. Charles F. Craig, "Observations upon Malaria: Latent Infection in Natives of the Philippine Islands," Philippine J. Sci., 1906, 1: 525.
140. Charles F. Craig, Philippine J. Sci., 1906, 1: 525. Ibid.
141. Charles F. Craig, "Report," quoted in Chief Surgeon, Philippines Division, to Surgeon General, Washington, D.C., 7 March 1908, File 24508/38, p. 10, RG 112-E26, USNA. Similar strictures against the habits of the enlisted men are not made.
142. Craig, "Observations upon Malaria" (n. 89), p. 525. This does not mean that previously recommended environmental intervention was abandoned. Indeed, mosquito eradication was still attempted, and buildings and sleeping quarters were screened as never before. Furthermore, prophylactic quinine was dispensed to Americans in areas where malaria prevailed. Disease prevention remained pragmatic, but the public health officer's repertoire was expanded.
143. George W. Davis's April 1902 report is quoted at length in Joseph O. Baylen and John H. Moore, "Senator John Tyler Morgan and Negro Colonization in the Philippines, 1901-1902," Phylon, Spring 1968, 24: 65-67. (Davis, responding to the Alabama senator's colonization scheme, concluded that the plan was inexpedient.)
144. T. Thomas Fortune, "The Filipino," Voice of the Negro, 1904, 1: 93-99, 199-203, 240-46; quotation on pp. 202-3.
145. (Fortune had been appointed by Roosevelt in November 1902 to investigate labor and race relations in the insular possessions; see E. L. Thornborough, T. Thomas Fortune: Militant Journalist [Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972].)
146. Despite Fortune's enthusiasm, the U.S. administration seems to have lost interest in the idea by late 1903: see Gatewood, Black Americans (n. 4), p. 317.
147. In favor of voluntary emigration was W. S. Scarborough, "The Negro and Our New Possessions," Forum, 1901, 34: 341-49;
148. in opposition, Rienzi B. Lemus, "The Negro and the Philippines," Colored Amer. Mag., 1903, 6: 314-18.
149. Congressional Record, 57th Cong., 1st sess., 7 May 1902, p. 5103.