Madness and colonization: Psychiatry in the British and French empires, 1800-1962

Journal of Social History

Volumn 35, Issue 2, 2001, Pages 295-326

  Keller, Richard ^a  

^a WASHINGTON UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040433278     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2001.0126     Document Type: Article

References (122)

1. I refer here specifically to Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (Paris, 1972 [1961]); and to Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978).
2. I refer here specifically to Michel Foucault, Histoire de la folie à l'âge classique (Paris, 1972 [1961]); and to Edward W. Said, Orientalism (New York, 1978).
3. Edward Shorter, A History of Psychiatry, From the Era of the Asylum to the Age of Prozac (New York, 1997), 6.
4. Roy Porter, A Social History of Madness: The World Through the Eyes of the Insane (New York, 1988), 16.
5. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
6. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
7. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
8. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
9. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
10. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
11. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
12. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
13. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
14. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
15. Jan Goldstein, Console and Classify: The French Psychiatric Profession in the Nineteenth Century (New York, 1987). For other accounts of the professionalization of French psychiatry, see Jacques Postel, Genèse de la psychiatrie: Les premiers écrits de Philippe Pinel (Paris, 1998), and Ian Dowbiggin, Inheriting Madness: Professionalization and Psychiatric Knowledge in Nineteenth-Century France (Berkeley, 1991). On gender and ethnicity, see Elaine Showalter, The Female Malady: Women, Madness, and English Culture, 1830-1980 (New York, 1985); and Sander L. Gilman, Difference and Pathology: Stereotypes of Sexuality, Race, and Madness (Ithaca, 1985), 150-62. On somatic treatments, see Shorter, A History of Psychiatry; Andrew Scull, "Somatic Treatments and the Historiography of Psychiatry," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 1-12; Jack D. Pressman, Last Resort: Psychosurgery and the Limits of Medicine (New York, 1997); and Joel Braslow, Mental Ills and Bodily Cures: Psychiatric Treatment in the First Half of the Twentieth Century (Berkeley, 1997), among others. Two very strong histories of psychiatry's relationship to the state in two very different political environments are Jean-Bernard Wojciechowski, Hygiène mentale et hygiène sociale (2 vols.; Paris, 1997), and Michael Burleigh, Death and Deliverance: "Euthanasia" in Germany, c. 1900-1945 (New York, 1997).
16. Vincent Crapanzano, The Hamadsha: A Study in Moroccan Ethnopsychiatry (Berkeley, 1973); Atwood D. Gaines, ed., Ethnopsychiatry: The Cultural Construction of Professional and Folk Psychiatries (Albany, 1992); and Susantha Goonatilake, Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge (Bloomington, 1999).
17. Vincent Crapanzano, The Hamadsha: A Study in Moroccan Ethnopsychiatry (Berkeley, 1973); Atwood D. Gaines, ed., Ethnopsychiatry: The Cultural Construction of Professional and Folk Psychiatries (Albany, 1992); and Susantha Goonatilake, Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge (Bloomington, 1999).
18. Vincent Crapanzano, The Hamadsha: A Study in Moroccan Ethnopsychiatry (Berkeley, 1973); Atwood D. Gaines, ed., Ethnopsychiatry: The Cultural Construction of Professional and Folk Psychiatries (Albany, 1992); and Susantha Goonatilake, Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge (Bloomington, 1999).
19. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, 1988); Helena Kuklick, The Savage Within: The Social History of British Anthropology, 1885-1945 (New York, 1991).
20. James Clifford, The Predicament of Culture: Twentieth Century Ethnography, Literature, and Art (Cambridge, 1988); Helena Kuklick, The Savage Within: The Social History of British Anthropology, 1885-1945 (New York, 1991).
21. Bernard Cohn, Colonialism and Its Forms of Knowledge: The British in India (Princeton, 1996).
22. Patricia Lorcin, Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Race in Colonial Algeria (London, 1995), provides the best example. On collaborationist theories of imperialism, see Ronald Robinson, "Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration," in Studies in the Theory of Imperialism, ed. Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe (London, 1972): 117-42.
23. Patricia Lorcin, Imperial Identities: Stereotyping, Prejudice, and Race in Colonial Algeria (London, 1995), provides the best example. On collaborationist theories of imperialism, see Ronald Robinson, "Non-European Foundations of European Imperialism: Sketch for a Theory of Collaboration," in Studies in the Theory of Imperialism, ed. Roger Owen and Bob Sutcliffe (London, 1972): 117-42.
24. Paul Rabinow, "Techno-Cosmopolitanism: Governing Morocco," in French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago, 1995): 277-319; Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991); and Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991).
25. Paul Rabinow, "Techno-Cosmopolitanism: Governing Morocco," in French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago, 1995): 277-319; Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991); and Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991).
26. Paul Rabinow, "Techno-Cosmopolitanism: Governing Morocco," in French Modern: Norms and Forms of the Social Environment (Chicago, 1995): 277-319; Gwendolyn Wright, The Politics of Design in French Colonial Urbanism (Chicago, 1991); and Timothy Mitchell, Colonising Egypt (Berkeley, 1991).
27. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing Mission: Exact Sciences and French Overseas Expansion (Baltimore, 1993); and Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999).
28. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing Mission: Exact Sciences and French Overseas Expansion (Baltimore, 1993); and Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999).
29. Michael Adas, Machines as the Measure of Men: Science, Technology, and Ideologies of Western Dominance (Ithaca, 1989); Lewis Pyenson, Civilizing Mission: Exact Sciences and French Overseas Expansion (Baltimore, 1993); and Gyan Prakash, Another Reason: Science and the Imagination of Modern India (Princeton, 1999).
30. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
31. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
32. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
33. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
34. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
35. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
36. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
37. See Megan Vaughn, Curing Their Ills: Colonial Power and African Illness (Stanford, 1991); David Arnold, Colonizing the Body: State Medicine and Epidemic Disease in Nineteenth-Century India (Berkeley, 1993), and his more recent collection of essays, Warm Climates and Western Medicine: The Emergence of Tropical Medicine, 1500-1900 (Amsterdam, 1996); Leonore Manderson, Sickness and the State: Health and Illness in Colonial Malaya, 1870-1940 (New York, 1996); and Philip Curtin, Disease and Empire: The Health of European Troops in the Conquest of Africa (New York, 1998). See also Roy MacLeod, ed., Nature and Empire: Science and the Colonial Enterprise, a special issue of Osiris 15 (2000); and Nicolaas A. Rupke, ed., Medical Geography in Historical Perspective (Medical History, Supplement 20; London, 2000). For the French context, see M. C. Micouleau-Sicault, Médecins français au Maroc: Combats en urgence, 1912-1956 (Paris, 2000).
38. Proceedings of the Congrès des médecins aliénistes et neurologistes de France et des pays de langue française, XXXVIIe Session - Rabat (Paris, 1933), 73-4.
39. Lewis Wurgaft, The Imperial Imagination: Magic and Myth in Kipling's India (Middletown, Conn., 1983).
40. Homi Bhabha, "Of Mimicry and Man: The Ambivalence of Colonial Discourse," and "Signs Taken for Wonders: Questions of Ambivalence and Authority under a Tree outside Delhi, May 1817," in The Location of Culture (New York, 1994), 85-92 and 102-22.
41. Ashis Nandy, The Intimate Enemy: Loss and Recovery of Self under Colonialism (Delhi, 1983), 32.
42. Anne McClintock, Imperial Leather: Race, Gender, and Sexuality in the Colonial Contest (New York, 1995), 181-9 and 219-31.
43. Porot and Don Côme Arrii, "L'impulsivité criminelle chez l'indigène algérien - Ses facteurs," Annales Médico-Psychologiques II (1932): 588-611.
44. Anne Stoler, "Rethinking Colonial Categories: European Communities and the Boundaries of Rule," Comparative Studies in Society and History 31 (1989).
45. Waltraud Ernst, Mad Tales from the Raj: The European Insane in British India, 1800-1858 (New York, 1991).
46. Michael A. Launer traces the origins of the term "doo-lally" to the Deolali dust bowl "one hundred miles North East of Bombay," where some mentally ill soldiers were effectively abandoned by British authorities, and where heat, heavy drinking, and sexual promiscuity were thought to contribute to madness, according to popular legend. See "Doolali-Tap," History of Psychiatry 5 (1994): 533-7.
47. Ernst, Mad Tales, 10.
48. Ibid., 78, 82-3. See also Ernst's "Idioms of Madness and Colonial Boundaries: The Case of the European and 'Native' Mentally Ill in Early Nineteenth-Century British India," Comparative Studies in Society and History (1997): 153-81, especially 158-60.
49. Ibid., 78, 82-3. See also Ernst's "Idioms of Madness and Colonial Boundaries: The Case of the European and 'Native' Mentally Ill in Early Nineteenth-Century British India," Comparative Studies in Society and History (1997): 153-81, especially 158-60.
50. Ernst, Mad Tales, 13-15, 115-20.
51. Ibid., 56, 65.
52. Ernst, "European Madness and Gender in Nineteenth-Century British India," Social History of Medicine 9, no. 3 (1996): 357-82.
53. See Showalter, The Female Malady.
54. Ernst, "European Madness and Gender," 360.
55. Ibid., 366, 382.
56. Ibid., 373, 380.
57. Mrinalini Sinha, Colonial Masculinity: The 'Manly Englishman' and the 'Effeminate Bengali' in the Late Nineteenth Century (New York, 1995 ), 9. Sinha also makes an important distinction between the labels "effeminate" and "feminine," implying that the former operates within a sliding scale of masculinity, while the latter diametrically opposes the masculine.
58. Christiane Hartnack, "Vishnu on Freud's Desk: Psychoanalysis in Colonial India," Social Research 57 (1990): 921-949; 922, 931-32, 945. James H. Mills, Madness, Cannabis, and Colonialism: The "Native Only" Lunatic Asylums of British India, 1857-1900 (London, 2000), released too late to be included in this review, also helps to fill this gap in the historiography."
59. Christiane Hartnack, "Vishnu on Freud's Desk: Psychoanalysis in Colonial India," Social Research 57 (1990): 921-949; 922, 931-32, 945. James H. Mills, Madness, Cannabis, and Colonialism: The "Native Only" Lunatic Asylums of British India, 1857-1900 (London, 2000), released too late to be included in this review, also helps to fill this gap in the historiography."
60. Ashis Nandy, "The Savage Freud: The First Non-Western Psychoanalyst and the Politics of Secret Selves in Colonial India," in The Savage Freud and Other Essays on Possible and Retrievable Selves (Princeton, 1995): 81-144.
61. Ibid., 122.
62. Hartnack, "Vishnu on Freud's Desk," 936.
63. Nandy, "The Savage Freud," 98.
64. This was most often the case for North Africans, although some West Africans were also transported. See Paul Borreil, "Considérations sur l'internement des aliénés sénégalais en France" (Med. thesis; Montpellier, 1908).
65. Vaughan, Curing Their Ills, ix-x, 8-11.
66. Ibid., 106.
67. The Zomba lunatic asylum in Nyasaland only became a "mental hospital" adminitered by the Medical Department in 1951, and even this reform was superficial: with no resident psychiatrist, an untrained staff employed psychosurgery, electroshock therapy, and psychoactive drugs more for purposes of control than for treatment.
68. Jock McCulloch, Colonial Psychiatry and "the African Mind" (New York, 1995), 43-5.
69. Ibid., 58-63, 120.
70. Of over two hundred sources in his bibliography, only twenty-six relate to French colonialism; of these, nine are books and articles by Frantz Fanon, and McCulloch cites none of the French secondary literature on colonial psychiatry.
71. See Jan Goldstein's Console and Classify for the best treatment of French psychiatric history. Moreover, in France, insanity had enormous "economic significance," contrary to McCulloch's assertions (41). In the interwar period the French Ministry of Labor contributed significant funds in order to fight the toll mental illness exacted on the French postwar economy. See Richard Keller, "Technologies and Economics of Mental Hygiene in Interwar France," paper presented at the Western Society for French History, Pacific Grove, California, November 1999.
72. See Jan Goldstein's Console and Classify for the best treatment of French psychiatric history. Moreover, in France, insanity had enormous "economic significance," contrary to McCulloch's assertions (41). In the interwar period the French Ministry of Labor contributed significant funds in order to fight the toll mental illness exacted on the French postwar economy. See Richard Keller, "Technologies and Economics of Mental Hygiene in Interwar France," paper presented at the Western Society for French History, Pacific Grove, California, November 1999.
73. Collomb and his colleagues founded Psychopathologie Africaine in 1965; M. C. and E. Ortigues, Oedipe Africaine (Paris, 1966).
74. Collomb and his colleagues founded Psychopathologie Africaine in 1965; M. C. and E. Ortigues, Oedipe Africaine (Paris, 1966).
75. See Robert Berthelier, L'Homme maghrébin dans la littérature psychiatrique (Paris, 1994), 111-122.
76. Jonathan Sadowsky, Imperial Bedlam: Institutions of Madness in Colonial Southwest Nigeria (Berkeley, 1999).
77. Ibid., 25.
78. Ibid., 35-7.
79. Ibid., 52-3, 57.
80. Ibid., 67-73,85, 90.
81. Ibid., 75-7, 98.
82. Ibid., 40-45.
83. Ibid., 98, 117.
84. Jean-Michel Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française en Algérie, 1830-1939" (CES Mémoire, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1989). I cite the version located at the Bibliothèque Médicale Henry-Ey, Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Paris. Readers may find a summary of the thesis in Jean-Michel Bégué, "French Psychiatry in Algeria (1830-1962): From Colonial to Transcultural," History of Psychiatry 7, no. 28 (1996): 533-48.
85. Jean-Michel Bégué, "Un siècle de psychiatrie française en Algérie, 1830-1939" (CES Mémoire, Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, 1989). I cite the version located at the Bibliothèque Médicale Henry-Ey, Centre Hospitalier Sainte-Anne, Paris. Readers may find a summary of the thesis in Jean-Michel Bégué, "French Psychiatry in Algeria (1830-1962): From Colonial to Transcultural," History of Psychiatry 7, no. 28 (1996): 533-48.
86. See "Les aliénés en Algérie," Annales Médico-Psychologiques (1873, vol. I): 492.
87. Bégué, "Un siècle," 145, 153.
88. Ibid., 211.
89. Suzanne Taieb, "Les idées d'influence dans la pathologie mentale de l'Indigène Nord-Africain. Le rôle des superstitions" (Med. thesis: Algiers, 1939).
90. Bégué, "Un siècle," 242-3.
91. Berthelier, L'Homme maghrébin, 12.
92. Ibid., 167.
93. Ibid., 81, 84, 44.
94. Ibid., 107, 124, 145.
95. Ibid., 121.
96. Bennani, La Psychanalyse au pays des saints. Les débuts de la psychiatrie et de la psychanalyse au Maroc (Casablanca, 1996), 239, 244.
97. Ibid., 16.
98. Ibid., 242.
99. Ibid., 124-28.
100. René Collignon, "La construction du sujet colonial: le cas particulier des malades mentaux. Difficultés d'une psychiatrie en terre africaine," in La psychologie des peuples et ses derives, ed. by Michel Kail and Geneviève Vermès (Paris, 1999), 165-81.
101. See especially Minotaure 2 (1933), a special issue of this Surrealist journal edited by Marcel Griaule, and dedicated to the ethnographic Mission Dakar-Djibouti of 1931-1933. See also James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Surrealism," in The Predicament of Culture, 117-51.
102. See especially Minotaure 2 (1933), a special issue of this Surrealist journal edited by Marcel Griaule, and dedicated to the ethnographic Mission Dakar-Djibouti of 1931-1933. See also James Clifford, "On Ethnographic Surrealism," in The Predicament of Culture, 117-51.
103. See for example, A. Donnadieu, "Psychose de civilisation," Annales Médico-psychologiques 97, no. 1 (January 1939): 30-37.
104. Ann Stoler provides two prominent examples in her article "Rethinking Colonial Categories" (cited above) and her more recent book Race and the Education of Desire: Foucault's History of Sexuality and the Colonial Order of Things (Durham, N. C., 1995).
105. Françoise Jacob, "La psychiatrie française face au monde colonial au xixe siècle," in Découvertes et explorateurs: Actes du Colloque International, Bordeaux 12-14 Juin 1992. VIIe Colloque d'Histoire au Présent (Paris, 1994): 365-73.
106. Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth, trans. by Constance Farrington (New York, 1963), 296.
107. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
108. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
109. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
110. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
111. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
112. See Michael W. Dols, Majnun: The Madman in the Medieval Islamic World (New York, 1992), and Françoise Cloarec, Bimaristans, lieux de folie et de sagesse. La folie et ses traitements dans les hôpitaux médiévaux au Moyen-Orient (Paris, 1998). An early example dealing with the Maghreb is Edmond Doutté, Magie et religion en Afrique du Nord (Paris, 1984 [1908]). Among more recent works are Sleim Ammar, "L'assistance psychiatrique en Tunisie: Aperçu historique," L'Information psychiatrique 48, no. 7 (1972): 647-657; Riadh Ben Rejeb, "A propos de la transe psychothérapeutique de Sidi Da"âs: Note sur la place du djinn dans les psychothérapies traditionnelles," Institut de belles lettres arabes 54, no. 168 (1991): 215-21; and Ghita el-Khayat, Une psychiatrie moderne pour le Maghreb (Paris, 1994).
113. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
114. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
115. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
116. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
117. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
118. Much historical work has focused on the importance of gender for colonialism. See the review essay by Malia Formes, "Beyond Complicity versus Resistance: Recent Work on Gender and European Imperialism," Journal of Social History (1995): 629-41. Many works have appeared since her review among them Sinha's Colonial Masculinity and McClintock's Imperial Leather (both cited above). For a diverse perspective, see also the following collections of essays: Julia Clancy-Smith and Frances Gouda, eds., Domesticating the Empire: Race, Gender, and Family Life in French and Dutch Colonialism (Charlottesville, 1998); Ruth Roach Pierson and Nupur Chaudhuri, eds., Nation, Empire, Colony: Historicizing Gender and Race (Bloomington, 1998); and Sara Friedrichsmeyer, Sara Lennox, and Susanne Zantop, eds., The Imperialist Imagination: German Colonialism and Its Legacy (Ann Arbor, 1998). The literature on gender and psychiatry is far too vast to list here. A few important examples include Elizabeth Lunbeck, The Psychiatric Persuasion: Knowledge, Gender, and Power in Modern America (Princeton, 1994); Ann Goldberg, Sex, Religion, and the Making of Modern Madness: The Eberbach Asylum and German Society, 1815-1849 (New York, 1999); and of course Showalter's The Female Malady (cited above).
119. See especially Roy Porter's A Social History of Madness, which employs the voices of the (mostly famous) insane to describe their experiences, and Joel Braslow's Mental Ills and Bodily Cures, which provides important indications about the relationships between doctors and patients in its horrifying descriptions of the "somatic turn" in American public institutions in the first half of the twentieth century.
120. See Françoise Vergès, Monsters and Revolutionaries: Colonial Family Romance and Métissage (Durham, N.C., 1999), 185-245, in which the author argues that the "assumptions of colonial psychology and its critique" inform the contemporary judicial system's assessments of crimes committed by Creoles in the French overseas department of La Réunion.
121. See, for example, G. Jacquel and J. Morel, "Sorcellerie et troubles mentaux: Étude faite dans le département de l'Orne," L'Encéphale 54 (1965): 5-35; and Léger, Péron, and Vallat, "Aspects actuels de la sorcellerie dans ses rapports avec la psychiatrie. Peut-on parler de délire de sorcellerie?" Annales Médico-psychologiques 129, Vol. II (1972): 559-75.
122. See, for example, G. Jacquel and J. Morel, "Sorcellerie et troubles mentaux: Étude faite dans le département de l'Orne," L'Encéphale 54 (1965): 5-35; and Léger, Péron, and Vallat, "Aspects actuels de la sorcellerie dans ses rapports avec la psychiatrie. Peut-on parler de délire de sorcellerie?" Annales Médico-psychologiques 129, Vol. II (1972): 559-75.