Envenomations

Medical Clinics of North America

Volumn 89, Issue 6, 2005, Pages 1195-1224

  Singletary, Eunice M ^a   Rochman, Adam S ^a   Bodmer, Juan Camilo Arias ^b   Holstege, Christopher P ^a,c,d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

^b UNIVERSIDAD DE LA SABANA   (Colombia)

^c UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF VIRGINIA HEALTH SYSTEM   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANALGESIC AGENT; ANTIBIOTIC AGENT; ANTIHISTAMINIC AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; BACITRACIN; CIPROFLOXACIN; CORTICOSTEROID; COTRIMOXAZOLE; CROFAB; DAPSONE; DIAZEPAM; DOXYCYCLINE; FISH VENOM; GLYCERYL TRINITRATE; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYZINE; IMMUNOGLOBULIN F(AB) FRAGMENT; METHOCARBAMOL; MORPHINE; NARCOTIC AGENT; OPIATE; PREDNISONE; SNAKE VENOM; SNAKE VENOM ANTISERUM; SPIDER VENOM ANTISERUM; STEROID; SULFADIAZINE SILVER; TETANUS TOXOID; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENOM ANTISERUM;

AGRANULOCYTOSIS; ALLERGIC REACTION; ANTHOZOA; APLASTIC ANEMIA; ARACHNID; BLOOD CLOTTING DISORDER; BLOOD DISEASE; CATFISH; CLINICAL FEATURE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DRUG HYPERSENSITIVITY; ECHINODERM; ENVENOMATION; EXCISION; FASCIOTOMY; FISH; FLUID THERAPY; HEMOLYSIS; HUMAN; HYDROTHERAPY; HYDROZOA; HYPERBILIRUBINEMIA; INFECTION; INFECTION RISK; INVERTEBRATE; JAUNDICE; JELLYFISH; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; METHEMOGLOBINEMIA; NEUROMUSCULAR DISEASE; NONHUMAN; PAIN; PALLOR; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SEA URCHIN; SKIN MANIFESTATION; SNAKEBITE; SORE THROAT; SPIDER; SPIDER BITE; TETANUS; TETANUS PROPHYLAXIS; TISSUE INJURY; URTICARIA; VERTEBRATE; WHEEZING; WOUND; WOUND CARE;

ANIMALS; ANTIVENINS; ARACHNIDISM; BITES AND STINGS; CNIDARIAN VENOMS; CROTALID VENOMS; EMERGENCY TREATMENT; FISH VENOMS; FISHES; HUMANS; SCYPHOZOA; SKATES (FISH); SNAKE BITES; SPIDER VENOMS; SPIDERS; VIPERIDAE;

EID: 26844548407     PISSN: 00257125     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.mcna.2005.07.001     Document Type: Review

References (161)

1. P.J. Fenner, and J.A. Williamson Worldwide deaths and severe envenomation from jellyfish stings Med J Aust 165 1996 658
2. K. Bengtson, M.M. Nichols, and V. Schnadig Sudden death in a child following jellyfish envenomation by Chiropsalmus quadrumanus: case report and autopsy findings JAMA 266 1991 1404
3. P.S. Auerbach, and J.T. Hays Erythema nodosum following a jellyfish sting J Emerg Med 5 1987 487
4. N. Ohtaki, K. Oka, and A. Sugimoto Cutaneous reactions caused by experimental exposure to jellyfish, Carybdea rastonii J Dermatol 17 1990 108
5. S. Veraldi, and C. Carrera Delayed cutaneous reaction to jellyfish Int J Dermatol 39 2000 28
6. J.W. Burnett, and W.D. Gable A fatal jellyfish envenomation by the Portuguese man-o'war Toxicon 27 1989 823
7. M.R. Stein, J.V. Marraccini, and N.E. Rothschild Fatal Portuguese man-o'-war (Physalia physalis) envenomation Ann Emerg Med 18 1989 312
8. H. Flecker 'Irukandji' stings to north Queensland bathers without production of wheals but with severe general symptoms Med J Aust 2 1952 89
9. J.H. Barnes Cause and effect in Irukandji stingings Med J Aust 1 1964 897
10. P. Fenner, and I. Carney The Irukandji syndrome: a devastating syndrome caused by a north Australian jellyfish Aust Fam Physician 28 1999 1131
11. P.J. Fenner, J. Williamson, and V.I. Callanan Further understanding of, and a new treatment for, "Irukandji" (Carukia barnesi) stings Med J Aust 145 1986 569
12. P.J. Fenner, J.A. Williamson, and J.W. Burnett The "Irukandji syndrome" and acute pulmonary oedema Med J Aust 149 3 1988 149
13. P.J. Fenner, and J.C. Hadok Fatal envenomation by jellyfish causing Irukandji syndrome Med J Aust 177 2002 362
14. M.A. Corkeron Magnesium infusion to treat Irukandji syndrome [letter] Med J Aust 178 8 2003 411
15. T.T. Huynh, J. Seymour, and P. Pereira Severity of Irukandji syndrome and nematocyst identification from skin scrapings Med J Aust 178 2003 38
16. J.D. Grady, and J.W. Burnett Irukandji-like syndrome in South Florida divers Ann Emerg Med 42 2003 763
17. J. Tucker Coelenterate and jellyfish envenomations Emergency Medicine 2005 Available at http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic104.htm Accessed 2005
18. J.W. Burnett, D. Weinrich, and J.A. Williamson Autonomic neurotoxicity of jellyfish and marine animal venoms Clin Auton Res 8 1998 125
19. J.W. Burnett, and G.J. Calton Jellyfish envenomation syndromes updated Ann Emerg Med 16 1987 1000
20. J.W. Burnett, K.P. Hepper, and L. Aurelian Recurrent eruptions following unusual solitary coelenterate envenomations J Am Acad Dermatol 17 1987 86
21. T. Mansson, H.W. Randle, and R.M. Mandojana Recurrent cutaneous jellyfish eruptions without envenomation Acta Derm Venereol 65 1985 72
22. K.D. Winkel, G.M. Hawdon, and K. Ashby Eye injury after jellyfish sting in temperate Australia Wilderness Environ Med 13 2002 203
23. M. Armoni, M. Ohali, and E. Hay Severe dyspnea due to jellyfish envenomation Pediatr Emerg Care 19 2003 84
24. J.T. Nomura, R.L. Sato, and R.M. Ahern A randomized paired comparison trial of cutaneous treatments for acute jellyfish (Carybdea alata) stings Am J Emerg Med 20 2002 624
25. R.A. Perkins, and S.S. Morgan Poisoning, envenomation, and trauma from marine creatures Am Fam Physician 69 2004 885
26. A.B. Kimball, K.Z. Arambula, and A.R. Stauffer Efficacy of a jellyfish sting inhibitor in preventing jellyfish stings in normal volunteers Wilderness Environ Med 15 2004 102
27. P.S. Auerbach Envenomation by aquatic invertebrates P.S. Auerbach Wilderness medicine 4th edition 2001 Mosby St. Louis 1450
28. M.B. Strauss, and R.I. MacDonald Hand injuries from sea urchin spines Clin Orthop 114 1976 216 218
29. A. Cracchiolo 3rd, and L. Goldberg Local and systemic reactions to puncture injuries by the sea urchin spine and the date palm thorn Arthritis Rheum 20 1977 1206
30. N. Liram, M. Gomori, and M. Perouansky Sea urchin puncture resulting in PIP joint synovial arthritis: case report and MRI study J Travel Med 7 2000 43
31. P.S. Auerbach Envenomation by aquatic invertebrates P.S. Auerbach Wilderness medicine 4th edition 2001 Mosby St. Louis 1488
32. P.J. Fenner, J.A. Williamson, and R.A. Skinner Fatal and non-fatal stingray envenomation Med J Aust 151 1989 621
33. P.K. Meyer Stingray injuries Wilderness Environ Med 8 1997 24
34. G.K. Isbister Venomous fish stings in tropical northern Australia Am J Emerg Med 19 2001 561
35. S.A. Gallagher Lionfish and stonefish Emergency Medicine 2004 Available at http://www.emedicine.com/emerg/topic300.htm Accessed 2004
36. B. Aldred, T. Erickson, and J. Lipscomb Lionfish envenomations in an urban wilderness Wilderness Environ Med 7 1996 291
37. Hare JA, Whitfield PE. An integrated assessment of the introduction of lionfish (Pterois volitans/miles) to the western Atlantic Ocean. In: NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS NCCOS 2. Silver Spring (MD): NOAA/NOS/NCCOS; 2003. p. 21.
38. M.C. Gwee, P. Gopalakrishnakone, and R. Yuen A review of stonefish venoms and toxins Pharmacol Ther 64 1994 509
39. R.M. Lyon Stonefish poisoning Wilderness Environ Med 15 2004 284
40. K.W. Kizer, H.E. McKinney, and P.S. Auerbach Scorpaenidae envenomation: a five-year poison center experience JAMA 253 1985 807
41. D.M. Taylor, K. Ashby, and K.D. Winkel An analysis of marine animal injuries presenting to emergency departments in Victoria, Australia Wilderness Environ Med 13 2002 106
42. S.K. Sutherland Antivenom use in Australia: premedication, adverse reactions and the use of venom detection kits Med J Aust 157 1992 734
43. R.U. Ashford, P.D. Sargeant, and G.D. Lum Septic arthritis of the knee caused by Edwardsiella tarda after a catfish puncture wound Med J Aust 168 1998 443
44. N. Ajmal, L.B. Nanney, and S.F. Wolfort Catfish spine envenomation: a case of delayed presentation Wilderness Environ Med 14 2003 101
45. B.R. Baack, J.O. Kucan, and E.G. Zook Hand infections secondary to catfish spines: case reports and literature review J Trauma 31 1991 1432
46. A.L. Blomkalns, and E.J. Otten Catfish spine envenomation: a case report and literature review Wilderness Environ Med 10 1999 242
47. D.K. Murphey, E.J. Septimus, and D.C. Waagner Catfish-related injury and infection: report of two cases and review of the literature Clin Infect Dis 14 1992 689
48. W.A. Watson, T.L. Litovitz, and W. Klein-Schwartz 2003 annual report of the American Association of Poison Control Centers Toxic Exposure Surveillance System Am J Emerg Med 22 2004 335
49. F.E. Russell, R.W. Carlson, and J. Wainschel Snake venom poisoning in the United States: experiences with 550 cases JAMA 233 1975 341
50. J.B. Bjarnason, and J.W. Fox Hemorrhagic metalloproteinases from snake venoms Pharmacol Ther 62 1994 325
51. M. Homma, and A.T. Tu Morphology of local tissue damage in experimental snake envenomation Br J Exp Pathol 52 1971 538
52. T.G. Obrig, C.B. Louise, and T.P. Moran Direct cytotoxic effects of hemorrhagic toxins from Crotalus ruber ruber and Crotalus atrox on human vascular endothelial cells, in vitro Microvasc Res 46 1993 412
53. G.D. Laing, P.B. Clissa, and R.D. Theakston Inflammatory pathogenesis of snake venom metalloproteinase-induced skin necrosis Eur J Immunol 33 2003 3458
54. A.M. Moura-da-Silva, G.D. Laing, and M.J. Paine Processing of pro-tumor necrosis factor-alpha by venom metalloproteinases: a hypothesis explaining local tissue damage following snake bite Eur J Immunol 26 1996 2000
55. C.L. Ownby, T.R. Colberg, and S.P. White Isolation, characterization and crystallization of a phospholipase A2 myotoxin from the venom of the prairie rattlesnake (Crotalus viridis viridis) Toxicon 35 1997 111
56. S.P. Bush, and P.W. Jansen Severe rattlesnake envenomation with anaphylaxis and rhabdomyolysis Ann Emerg Med 25 1995 845
57. P.W. Jansen, R.M. Perkin, and D. Van Stralen Mojave rattlesnake envenomation: prolonged neurotoxicity and rhabdomyolysis Ann Emerg Med 21 1992 322
58. C.S. Kitchens, S. Hunter, and L.H. Van Mierop Severe myonecrosis in a fatal case of envenomation by the canebrake rattlesnake (Crotalus horridus atricaudatus) Toxicon 25 1987 455
59. N.S. Cruz, and R.G. Alvarez Rattlesnake bite complications in 19 children Pediatr Emerg Care 10 1994 30
60. D.L. Hardy Envenomation by the Mexican lance-headed rattlesnake Crotalus polystictus: a case report Toxicon 20 1982 1089
61. C.E. Dempfle, R. Kohl, and J. Harenberg Coagulopathy after snake bite by Bothrops neuwiedi: case report and results of in vitro experiments Blut 61 1990 369
62. E. Riffer, S.C. Curry, and R. Gerkin Successful treatment with antivenom of marked thrombocytopenia without significant coagulopathy following rattlesnake bite Ann Emerg Med 16 1987 1297
63. C.L. Ownby, R.A. Kainer, and A.T. Tu Pathogenesis of hemorrhage induced by rattlesnake venom: an electron microscopic study Am J Pathol 76 1974 401
64. J.J. Valdes, R.G. Thompson, and V.L. Wolff Inhibition of calcium channel dihydropyridine receptor binding by purified Mojave toxin Neurotoxicol Teratol 11 1989 129
65. J.F. Brick, L. Gutmann, and J. Brick Timber rattlesnake venom-induced myokymia: evidence for peripheral nerve origin Neurology 37 1987 1545
66. R.L. Lewis, and L. Gutmann Snake venoms and the neuromuscular junction Semin Neurol 24 2004 175
67. C.P. Holstege, M.B. Miller, and M. Wermuth Crotalid snake envenomation Crit Care Clin 13 1997 889
68. P.E. McKinney Out-of-hospital and interhospital management of crotaline snakebite Ann Emerg Med 37 2001 168
69. P.M. Ya, and J.F. Perry Jr. Experimental evaluation of methods for the early treatment of snake bite Surgery 47 1960 975
70. S.P. Bush, K.G. Hegewald, and S.M. Green Effects of a negative pressure venom extraction device (Extractor) on local tissue injury after artificial rattlesnake envenomation in a porcine model Wilderness Environ Med 11 2000 180
71. R.S. Leopold, and G.S. Huber Ineffectiveness of suction in removing snake venom from open wounds US Armed Forces Med J 11 1960 682
72. R.C. Dart, and R.A. Gustafson Failure of electric shock treatment for rattlesnake envenomation Ann Emerg Med 20 1991 659
73. N.R. Howe, and J.L. Meisenheimer Jr. Electric shock does not save snakebitten rats Ann Emerg Med 17 1988 254
74. E.K. Johnson, K.V. Kardong, and S.P. Mackessy Electric shocks are ineffective in treatment of lethal effects of rattlesnake envenomation in mice Toxicon 25 1987 1347
75. C.C. Snyder, R.T. Murdock, and G.L. White Jr. Electric shock treatment for snake bite Lancet 1 1989 1022
76. W.R. Cohen, W. Wetzel, and A. Kadish Local heat and cold application after eastern cottonmouth moccasin (Agkistrodon piscivorus) envenomation in the rat: effect on tissue injury Toxicon 30 1992 1383
77. E.J. Goldstein, D.M. Citron, and H. Gonzalez Bacteriology of rattlesnake venom and implications for therapy J Infect Dis 140 1979 818
78. E.O. Ledbetter, and A.E. Kutscher The aerobic and anaerobic flora of rattlesnake fangs and venom: therapeutic implications Arch Environ Health 19 1969 770
79. R.D. Theakston, R.E. Phillips, and S. Looareesuwan Bacteriological studies of the venom and mouth cavities of wild Malayan pit vipers (Calloselasma rhodostoma) in southern Thailand Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg 84 1990 875
80. R.F. Clark, B.S. Selden, and B. Furbee The incidence of wound infection following crotalid envenomation J Emerg Med 11 1993 583
81. H.G. Weed Nonvenomous snakebite in Massachusetts: prophylactic antibiotics are unnecessary Ann Emerg Med 22 1993 220
82. D.A. Talan, D.M. Citron, and G.D. Overturf Antibacterial activity of crotalid venoms against oral snake flora and other clinical bacteria J Infect Dis 164 1991 195
83. M.F. Angel, F. Zhang, and M. Jones Necrotizing fasciitis of the upper extremity resulting from a water moccasin bite South Med J 95 2002 1090
84. C.H. Wu, W.H. Hu, and D.Z. Hung Snakebite complicated with Vibrio vulnificus infection Vet Hum Toxicol 43 2001 283
85. T.G. Glass Jr. Early debridement in pit viper bite Surg Gynecol Obstet 136 1973 774
86. T.T. Huang, J.B. Lynch, and D.L. Larson The use of excisional therapy in the management of snakebite Ann Surg 179 1974 598
87. R.M. Stewart, C.P. Page, and W.H. Schwesinger Antivenom and fasciotomy/debridement in the treatment of the severe rattlesnake bite Am J Surg 158 1989 543
88. M.A. Rossi, L.C. Peres, and F. de Paola Electron-microscopic study of systemic myonecrosis due to poisoning by tropical rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus) in humans Arch Pathol Lab Med 113 1989 169
89. T.G. Glass Jr. Early debridement in pit viper bites JAMA 235 1976 2513
90. D.A. Tanen, D.C. Danish, and G.A. Grice Fasciotomy worsens the amount of myonecrosis in a porcine model of crotaline envenomation Ann Emerg Med 44 2004 99
91. S.R. Garfin, R.R. Castilonia, and S.J. Mubarak Rattlesnake bites and surgical decompression: results using a laboratory model Toxicon 22 1984 177
92. S.R. Garfin, R.R. Castilonia, and S.J. Mubarak The effect of antivenom on intramuscular pressure elevations induced by rattlesnake venom Toxicon 23 1985 677
93. B.S. Gold, R.A. Barish, and R.C. Dart Resolution of compartment syndrome after rattlesnake envenomation utilizing non-invasive measures J Emerg Med 24 2003 285
94. E.L. Hall Role of surgical intervention in the management of crotaline snake envenomation Ann Emerg Med 37 2001 175
95. R.S. Roberts, T.A. Csencsitz, and C.W. Heard Jr. Upper extremity compartment syndromes following pit viper envenomation Clin Orthop 193 1985 184 188
96. M. Mars, G.P. Hadley, and J.M. Aitchison Direct intracompartmental pressure measurement in the management of snakebites in children S Afr Med J 80 1991 227
97. S.C. Curry, J.C. Kraner, and D.B. Kunkel Noninvasive vascular studies in management of rattlesnake envenomations to extremities Ann Emerg Med 14 1985 1081
98. M. Mars, and G.P. Hadley Failure of pulse oximetry in the assessment of raised limb intracompartmental pressure Injury 25 1994 379
99. W. Hoback, and T. Green Treatemnt of snake venom poisoning with cortisone and corticotropin JAMA 182 1953 236
100. T.G. Grace, and G.E. Omer The management of upper extremity pit viper wounds J Hand Surg Am 5 1980 168
101. R.C. Dart, and J. McNally Efficacy, safety, and use of snake antivenoms in the United States Ann Emerg Med 37 2001 181
102. P. Consroe, N.B. Egen, and F.E. Russell Comparison of a new ovine antigen binding fragment (Fab) antivenom for United States Crotalidae with the commercial antivenom for protection against venom-induced lethality in mice Am J Trop Med Hyg 53 1995 507
103. C.P. Holstege, J. Wu, and A.B. Baer Immediate hypersensitivity reaction associated with the rapid infusion of Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine) Ann Emerg Med 39 2002 677
104. R.C. Dart, S.A. Seifert, and L.V. Boyer A randomized multicenter trial of crotalinae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine) antivenom for the treatment for crotaline snakebite in the United States Arch Intern Med 161 2001 2030
105. R.C. Dart, S.A. Seifert, and L. Carroll Affinity-purified, mixed monospecific crotalid antivenom ovine Fab for the treatment of crotalid venom poisoning Ann Emerg Med 30 1997 33
106. A. Ruha, M. Beular, and D. Brooks CroFab for the treatment of rattlesnake envenomation [abstract] J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 39 2001 546
107. E.M. Caravati Copperhead bites and Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine): routine use requires evidence of improved outcomes Ann Emerg Med 43 2004 207
108. E.J. Lavonas, C.J. Gerardo, and G. O'Malley Initial experience with Crotalidae polyvalent immune Fab (ovine) antivenom in the treatment of copperhead snakebite Ann Emerg Med 43 2004 200
109. R.C. Dart, K.M. Hurlbut, and R. Garcia Validation of a severity score for the assessment of crotalid snakebite Ann Emerg Med 27 1996 321
110. J.A. Guisto Severe toxicity from crotalid envenomation after early resolution of symptoms Ann Emerg Med 26 1995 387
111. G. Swindle, K. Seaman, and D. Arthur The six hour observation rule for grade I Crotalid envenomation: is it sufficient J Wilderness Med 3 1992 168
112. T.P. Forks Brown recluse spider bites J Am Board Fam Pract 13 2000 415
113. T.P. Forks Evaluation and treatment of poisonous snakebites Am Fam Physician 50 1994 123
114. H.H. Sams, S.B. Hearth, and L.L. Long Nineteen documented cases of Loxosceles reclusa envenomation J Am Acad Dermatol 44 2001 603
115. L.J. Forrester, J.T. Barrett, and B.J. Campbell Red blood cell lysis induced by the venom of the brown recluse spider: the role of sphingomyelinase D Arch Biochem Biophys 187 1978 355
116. H.P. Cole 3rd, R.E. Wesley, and L.E. King Jr. Brown recluse spider envenomation of the eyelid: an animal model Ophthal Plast Reconstr Surg 11 1995 153
117. C.J. Dillaha, G.T. Jansen, and W.M. Honeycutt North American loxoscelism: necrotic bite of the brown recluse spider JAMA 188 1964 33
118. M.A. Rekow, D.J. Civello, and C.R. Geren Enzymatic and hemolytic properties of brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) toxin and extracts of venom apparatus, cephalothorax and abdomen Toxicon 21 1983 441
119. J. James, and W. Sellars Reaction following suspected spider bite Am J Dis Child 102 1961 395
120. J.A. Majeski, and G.G. Durst Sr. Necrotic arachnidism South Med J 69 1976 887
121. S.W. Wright, K.D. Wrenn, and L. Murray Clinical presentation and outcome of brown recluse spider bite Ann Emerg Med 30 1997 28
122. R.S. Vetter Myth: idiopathic wounds are often due to brown recluse or other spider bites throughout the United States West J Med 173 2000 357
123. R.S. Vetter, and D.K. Barger An infestation of 2,055 brown recluse spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae) and no envenomations in a Kansas home: implications for bite diagnoses in nonendemic areas J Med Entomol 39 2002 948
124. R.S. Vetter, and S.P. Bush The diagnosis of brown recluse spider bite is overused for dermonecrotic wounds of uncertain etiology Ann Emerg Med 39 2002 544
125. R.S. Vetter, P.E. Cushing, and R.L. Crawford Diagnoses of brown recluse spider bites (loxoscelism) greatly outnumber actual verifications of the spider in four western American states Toxicon 42 2003 413
126. R.S. Vetter, G.B. Edwards, and L.F. James Reports of envenomation by brown recluse spiders (Araneae: Sicariidae) outnumber verifications of Loxosceles spiders in Florida J Med Entomol 41 2004 593
127. R.S. Vetter, and S.P. Bush Chemical burn misdiagnosed as brown recluse spider bite Am J Emerg Med 20 2002 68
128. P.C. Anderson Spider bites in the United States Dermatol Clin 15 1997 307
129. R.S. Berger A critical look at therapy for the brown recluse spider bite Arch Dermatol 107 1973 298
130. R.S. Rees, D.P. Altenbern, and J.B. Lynch Brown recluse spider bites: a comparison of early surgical excision versus dapsone and delayed surgical excision Ann Surg 202 1985 659
131. H.H. Sams, C.A. Dunnick, and M.L. Smith Necrotic arachnidism J Am Acad Dermatol 44 2001 561
132. J.B. DeLozier, L. Reaves, and L.E. King Jr. Brown recluse spider bites of the upper extremity South Med J 81 1988 181
133. M. Gutowicz, R.A. Fritz, and A.L. Sonoga Brown recluse spider bite: a literature review and case report J Am Podiatr Med Assoc 79 1989 142
134. R.S. Berger, E.H. Adelstein, and P.C. Anderson Intravascular coagulation: the cause of necrotic arachnidism J Invest Dermatol 61 1973 142
135. G.T. Jansen, P.N. Morgan, and J.N. McQueen The brown recluse spider bite: controlled evaluation of treatment using the white rabbit as an animal model South Med J 64 1971 1194
136. P.C. Anderson What's new in loxoscelism - 1978: case report Mo Med 74 1977 549
137. S.M. Barrett, M. Romine-Jenkins, and D.E. Fisher Dapsone or electric shock therapy of brown recluse spider envenomation? Ann Emerg Med 24 1994 21
138. L.E. King Jr., and R.S. Rees Dapsone treatment of a brown recluse bite JAMA 250 1983 648
139. M.L. Maynor, R.E. Moon, and B. Klitzman Brown recluse spider envenomation: a prospective trial of hyperbaric oxygen therapy Acad Emerg Med 4 1997 184
140. S. Phillips, M. Kohn, and D. Baker Therapy of brown spider envenomation: a controlled trial of hyperbaric oxygen, dapsone, and cyproheptadine Ann Emerg Med 25 1995 363
141. G. Beilman, C. Winslow, and T. Teslow Experimental brown recluse spider bite in guinea pig: results of treatment with dapsone or hyperbaric oxygen J Wilderness Med 5 1994 287
142. G.M. Strain, T.G. Snider, and B.L. Tedford Hyperbaric oxygen effects on brown recluse spider (Loxosceles reclusa) envenomation in rabbits Toxicon 29 1991 989
143. K.G. Burton Nitroglycerine patches for brown recluse spider bites Am Fam Physician 51 1995 1401
144. B.P. Lowry, J.F. Bradfield, and R.G. Carroll A controlled trial of topical nitroglycerin in a New Zealand white rabbit model of brown recluse spider envenomation Ann Emerg Med 37 2001 161
145. R. Rees, R.B. Shack, and E. Withers Management of the brown recluse spider bite Plast Reconstr Surg 68 1981 768
146. M. Hlubek, D. Tian, and E.L. Stuenkel Mechanism of alpha-latrotoxin action at nerve endings of neurohypophysis Brain Res 992 2003 30
147. M.D. Hlubek, E.L. Stuenkel, and V.G. Krasnoperov Calcium-independent receptor for alpha-latrotoxin and neurexin 1alpha [corrected] facilitate toxin-induced channel formation: evidence that channel formation results from tethering of toxin to membrane Mol Pharmacol 57 2000 519
148. Y.A. Ushkaryov, K.E. Volynski, and A.C. Ashton The multiple actions of black widow spider toxins and their selective use in neurosecretion studies Toxicon 43 2004 527
149. R.F. Clark, S. Wethern-Kestner, and M.V. Vance Clinical presentation and treatment of black widow spider envenomation: a review of 163 cases Ann Emerg Med 21 1992 782
150. C.W. Zukowski Black widow spider bite J Am Board Fam Pract 6 1993 279
151. G.A. Jelinek Widow spider envenomation (latrodectism): a worldwide problem Wilderness Environ Med 8 1997 226
152. N.G. Hoover, and J.D. Fortenberry Use of antivenom to treat priapism after a black widow spider bite Pediatrics 114 2004 e128
153. O. Karcioglu, M. Gumustekin, and Y. Tuncok Acute renal failure following latrodectism Vet Hum Toxicol 43 2001 161
154. M. Lifshitz, and E. Zalzstein Black widow spider envenomation in a 36-year-old man Wilderness Environ Med 13 2002 285
155. H.S. Moss, and L.S. Binder A retrospective review of black widow spider envenomation Ann Emerg Med 16 1987 188
156. G.F. Key A comparison of calcium gluconate and methocarbamol (Robaxin) in the treatment of Latrodectism (black widow spider envenomation) Am J Trop Med Hyg 30 1981 273
157. J.R. Li Methocarbamol in the treatment of black window spider poisoning: report of a case JAMA 173 1960 662
158. P.J. Ryan Preliminary report: experience with the use of dantrolene sodium in the treatment of bites by the black widow spider Latrodectus hesperus J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 21 1983 487
159. R.F. Clark The safety and efficacy of antivenom Latrodectus mactans J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 39 2001 125
160. G.K. Isbister, A. Graudins, and J. White Antivenom treatment in arachnidism J Toxicol Clin Toxicol 41 2003 291
161. S. Suntorntham, J.R. Roberts, and G.J. Nilsen Dramatic clinical response to the delayed administration of black widow spider antivenom Ann Emerg Med 24 1994 1198