Transmission of Toxoplasma: Clues from the study of sea otters as sentinels of Toxoplasma gondii flow into the marine environment

International Journal for Parasitology

Volumn 35, Issue 11-12, 2005, Pages 1155-1168

  Conrad, P A ^a   Miller, M A ^b   Kreuder, C ^a   James, E R ^d   Mazet, J ^a   Dabritz, H ^a   Jessup, D A ^b   Gulland, Frances ^c   Grigg, M E ^d  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^b CALIFORNIA DEPARTMENT OF FISH AND GAME   (United States)

^c THE MARINE MAMMAL CENTER   (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Enhydra lutris; Genotype; RAPD; Sea otter; Toxoplasma gondii; Type X

Indexed keywords

FRESH WATER;

DETECTION METHOD; GENOTYPE; MARINE MAMMAL; PARASITE TRANSMISSION;

ALLELE; CARNIVORA; CLADISTICS; DOMESTIC ANIMAL; ECOSYSTEM; ENHYDRA LUTRIS NEREIS; FECES; FOOD INTAKE; GENOTYPE; HOST; HUMAN; MAMMAL; MARINE ENVIRONMENT; MORTALITY; NONHUMAN; NUCLEOTIDE SEQUENCE; OOCYTE; PARASITE ISOLATION; PARASITE TRANSMISSION; PARASITOSIS; PATHOGENESIS; PHOCA VITULINA; POPULATION; POPULATION RECOVERY; PREDATOR; PREY; PROTOZOON; RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA; REVIEW; SEA; SEAL; SEASHORE; SEROPREVALENCE; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; TOXOPLASMOSIS; UNITED STATES; WILDLIFE;

ANIMALS; BASE SEQUENCE; CALIFORNIA; DNA, PROTOZOAN; ENVIRONMENTAL MONITORING; MOLECULAR SEQUENCE DATA; OOCYSTS; OTTERS; RANDOM AMPLIFIED POLYMORPHIC DNA TECHNIQUE; SEAWATER; TOXOPLASMA; TOXOPLASMOSIS, ANIMAL; WATER MICROBIOLOGY; ZOONOSES;

CALIFORNIA; NORTH AMERICA; UNITED STATES; WESTERN HEMISPHERE; WORLD;

ANIMALIA; ENHYDRA; ENHYDRA LUTRIS; ENHYDRA LUTRIS NEREIS; FELIDAE; LUTRINAE; PHOCA VITULINA; TOXOPLASMA; TOXOPLASMA GONDII; ZALOPHUS CALIFORNIANUS;

EID: 25844528174     PISSN: 00207519     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2005.07.002     Document Type: Review

References (135)

1. J.J. Aramini, C. Stephen, and J.P. Dubey Toxoplasma gondii in Vancouver Island cougars (Felis concolor vancouverensis): serology and oocyst shedding J. Parasitol. 84 1998 430 440
2. J.J. Aramini, C. Stephen, J.P. Dubey, C. Engelstoft, H. Schwantje, and C.S. Ribble Potential contamination of drinking water with Toxoplasma gondii oocysts Epidemiol. Infect. 122 1999 305 315
3. K.D. Arkush, M.A. Miller, C.M. Leutenegger, I.A. Gardner, A.E. Packham, A.R. Heckeroth, A.M. Tenter, B.C. Barr, and P.A. Conrad Molecular and bioassay-detection of Toxoplasma gondii oocyst uptake by mussels (Mytilus galloprovincialis) Int. J. Parasitol. 33 2003 1087 1097
4. L.M. Bahia-Oliveira, J.L. Jones, J. Azevedo-Silva, C.C.F. Alves, F. Orefice, and D.G. Addiss Highly endemic waterborne toxoplasmosis in north Rio de Janeiro State, Brazil Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9 2003 55 62
5. M.W. Benenson, E.T. Takafuji, S.M. Lemon, R.L. Greenup, and A.J. Sulzer Oocyst-transmitted toxoplasmosis associated with ingestion of contaminated water N. Engl. J. Med. 307 1982 666 669
6. W.R. Bowie, A.S. King, D.H. Werker, J.L. Isaac-Renton, A. Bell, S.B. Eng, and S.A. Marion Outbreak of toxoplasmosis associated with municipal drinking water. The BC Toxoplasma Investigation Team Lancet 350 1997 173 177
7. J.C. Buzby, and T. Roberts Economic costs and trade impacts of microbial foodborne illness World Health Stat. Q. 50 1997 57 66
8. J.E. Childs, and W.S. Seegar Epidemiologic observations on infection with Toxoplasma gondii in three species of urban mammals from Baltimore, Maryland, USA Int. J. Zoonoses 13 1986 249 261
9. E. Christie, J.P. Dubey, and P.W. Pappas Prevalence of Sarcocystis infection and other intestinal parasitisms in cats from a humane shelter in Ohio J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 168 1976 421 422
10. G.E. Claus, E. Christie, and J.P. Dubey Prevalence of Toxoplasma antibody in feline sera J. Parasitol. 63 1977 266
11. M.L. Darde Biodiversity in Toxoplasma gondii Curr. Top. Microbiol. Immunol. 219 1996 27 41
12. P. Daszak, A.A. Cunningham, and A.D. Hyatt Emerging infectious diseases of wildlife - threats to biodiversity and human health Science 287 2000 443 449
13. P. Daszak, A.A. Cunningham, and A.D. Hyatt Anthropogenic environmental change and the emergence of infectious diseases in wildlife Acta Trop. 78 2001 103 116
14. M.L. DeFeo, J.P. Dubey, T.N. Mather, and R.C. Rhodes II Epidemiologic investigation of seroprevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in cats and rodents Am. J. Vet. Res. 63 2002 1714 1717
15. J.P. Dubey Feline toxoplasmosis and coccidiosis: a survey of domiciled and stray cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 162 1973 873 877
16. J.P. Dubey Reshedding of Toxoplasma oocysts by chronically infected cats Nature 262 1976 213 214
17. J.P. Dubey Duration of immunity to shedding of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts by cats J. Parasitol. 81 1995 410 415
18. J.P. Dubey Advances in the life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii Int. J. Parasitol. 28 1998 1019 1024
19. J.P. Dubey Tachyzoite-induced life cycle of Toxoplasma gondii in cats J. Parasitol. 88 2002 713 717
20. J.P. Dubey Toxoplasmosis - a waterborne zoonosis Vet. Parasitol. 126 2004 57 72
21. J.P. Dubey, and C.P. Beattie Toxoplasmosis of Animals and Man 1988 CRC Press Boca Raton, FL
22. J.P. Dubey, and J.K. Frenkel Cyst-induced toxoplasmosis in cats J. Protzool. 19 1972 155 177
23. J.P. Dubey, and J.K. Frenkel Immunity to feline toxoplasmosis: modification by administration of corticosteroids Vet. Path. 11 1974 350 379
24. J.P. Dubey, and J.K. Frenkel Feline toxoplasmosis from acutely infected mice and the development of Toxoplasma cysts J. Protozool. 23 1976 256 546
25. J.P. Dubey, and R.M. Weigel Epidemiology of Toxoplasma gondii in farm ecosystems J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 43 1996 124S
26. J.P. Dubey, R.M. Weigel, A.M. Siegel, P. Thulliez, U.D. Kitron, M.A. Mitchell, A. Mannelli, N.E. Mateus-Pinilla, S.K. Shen, O.C.H. Kwok, and K.S. Todd Sources and reservoirs of Toxoplasma gondii infection on 47 swine farms in Illinois J. Parasitol. 81 1995 723 729
27. J.P. Dubey, N.L. Miller, and D.K. Frenkel Toxoplasma gondii life cycle in cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 157 1970 1767 1770
28. J.P. Dubey, J.K. Lunney, S.K. Shen, O.C. Kwok, D.A. Ashford, and P. Thulliez Infectivity of low numbers of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts to pigs J. Parasitol. 82 1996 438 443
29. J.P. Dubey, W.J.A. Saville, J.F. Stanek, and S.M. Reed Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in domestic cats from rural Ohio J. Parasitol. 88 2002 802 803
30. J.P. Dubey, R.L. Zarnke, N.J. Thomas, S.K. Wong, W. Van Bonn, M. Briggs, J.W. Davis, R. Ewing, M. Mense, O.C. Kwok, S. Romand, and P. Thulliez Toxoplasma gondii, Neospora caninum, Sarcocystis neurona, and Sarcocystis canis-like infections in marine mammals Vet. Parasitol. 116 2003 275 296
31. R.H. Dwight, J.C. Semenza, D.B. Baker, and B.H. Olson Association of urban runoff with coastal water quality in Orange County, California Water Environ. Res. 74 2002 82 90
32. R.H. Dwight, D.B. Baker, J.C. Semenza, and B.H. Olson Health effects associated with recreational coastal water use: urban versus rural California Am. J. Public Health 94 2004 565 567
33. J.A. Estes, and D.O. Duggins Sea otters and kelp forests in Alaska: generality and variation in a community ecological paradigm Ecol. Monogr. 65 1995 75 100
34. J.A. Estes, and J.F. Palmisano Sea otters: their role in structuring nearshore communities Science 185 1974 1058 1060
35. J.A. Estes, B.B. Hatfield, K. Ralls, and J. Ames Causes of mortality in California sea otters during periods of population growth and decline Mar. Mammal Sci. 19 2003 198 216
36. J.A. Estes, M.L. Riedman, M.M. Staedler, M.T. Tinker, and B.E. Lyon Individual variation in prey selection by sea otters: patterns, causes and implications J. Anim. Ecol. 72 2003 144 155
37. J.A. Estes, E.M. Danner, D.F. Doak, B. Konar, A.M. Springer, P.D. Steinberg, M.T. Tinker, and T.M. Williams Complex trophic interactions in kelp forest ecosystems Bull. Mar. Sci. 74 2004 621 638
38. R. Fayer, T.K. Graczyk, E.J. Lewis, J.M. Trout, and C.A. Farley Survival of infectious Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts in seawater and eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) in the Chesapeake Bay Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64 1998 1070 1074
39. R. Fayer, E.J. Lewis, J.M. Trout, T.K. Graczyk, M.C. Jenkins, L. Xiao, and A.A. Lal Cryptosporidium parvum in oysters from commercial harvesting sites in the Chesapeake Bay Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5 1999 706 710
40. R. Fayer, J.M. Trout, E.J. Lewis, M. Santin, L. Zhou, A.A. Lal, and L. Xiao Contamination of Atlantic coast commercial shellfish with Cryptosporidium Parasitol. Res. 89 2003 141 145
41. R. Fayer, J.P. Dubey, and D.S. Lindsay Zoonotic protozoa: from land to sea Trends Parasitol. 20 2004 531 536
42. A.M. Ferreira, R.W. Vitor, A.C. Carneiro, G.P. Brandao, and M.N. Melo Genetic variability of Brazilian Toxoplasma gondii strains detected by random amplified polymorphic DNA-polymerase chain reaction (RAPD-PCR) and simple sequence repeat anchored-PCR (SSR-PCR) Infect. Genet. Evol. 4 2004 131 142
43. J. Flegr, P. Kodym, and V. Tolarova Correlation of duration of latent Toxoplasma gondii infection with personality changes in women Biol. Pyschol. 53 2000 57 68
44. J. Flegr, J. Havlicek, P. Kodym, M. Maly, and Z. Smahel Increased risk of traffic accidents in subjects with latent toxoplasmosis: a retrospective case-control study BMC Infect. Dis. 2 2002 11 (epub http://www.biomedcentral. com/content/pdf/1471-2334-2-11.pdf )
45. C.E. Franti, H.P. Riemann, D.E. Behymer, D. Suther, J.A. Howarth, and R. Ruppanner Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in wild and domestic animals in northern California J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 169 1976 901 906
46. J.K. Frenkel Toxoplasmosis in human beings J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 196 1990 240 248
47. J.K. Frenkel, A. Ruiz, and M. Chinchilla Soil survival of Toxoplasma oocysts in Kansas and Costa Rica Am J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 24 1975 439 443
48. L.R. Gerber, M.T. Tinker, D.F. Doak, and J.A. Estes Mortality sensitivity in life-stage simulation analysis: a case study of southern sea otters Ecol. Appl. 14 2004 1554 1565
49. T.K. Graczyk, C.A. Farley, R. Fayer, E.J. Lewis, and J.M. Trout Detection of Cryptosporidium oocysts and Giardia cysts in the tissues of eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) carrying principal oyster infectious diseases J. Parasitol. 84 1998 1039 1042
50. T.K. Graczyk, R. Fayer, M.R. Cranfield, and B.D. Conn Recovery of waterborne Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts by freshwater benthic clams (Corbicula fluminea) Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64 1998 427 430
51. T.K. Graczyk, Y.R. Ortega, and D.B. Conn Recovery of waterborne oocysts of Cyclospora cayetanensis by Asian freshwater clams (Corbicular fluminea) Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 59 1998 928 932
52. T.K. Graczyk, R. Fayer, D.B. Conn, and E.J. Lewis Evaluation of the recovery of waterborne Giardia cysts by freshwater clams and cyst detection in clam tissue Parasitol. Res. 85 1999 30 34
53. T.K. Graczyk, R. Fayer, E.J. Lewis, J.M. Trout, and C.A. Farley Cryptosporidium oocysts in bent mussels (Ischadium recurvum) in the Chesapeake Bay Parasitol. Res. 85 1999 518 521
54. M.E. Grigg, S. Bonnefoy, A.B. Hehl, Y. Suzuki, and J.C. Boothroyd Success and virulence in Toxoplasma as the result of sexual recombination between two distinct ancestries Science 294 2001 161 165
55. M.E. Grigg, J. Ganatra, J.C. Boothroyd, and T.P. Margolis Unusual abundance of atypical strains associated with human ocular toxoplasmosis J. Infect. Dis. 184 2001 633
56. N.G. Guerina, H.W. Hsu, H.C. Meissner, J.H. Maguire, R. Lynfield, B. Stechenberg, I. Abroms, M.S. Pasternack, R. Hoff, and R.B. Eaton Neonatal serologic screening and early treatment for congenital Toxoplasma gondii infection. The New England Regional Toxoplasma Working Group N. Engl. J. Med. 330 1994 1858 1863
57. Z.G. Guo, U. Gross, and A.M. Johnson Toxoplasma gondii virulence markers identified by random amplified polymorphic DNA polymerase chain reaction Parasitol. Res. 83 1997 458 463
58. W.M. Guterbock, and N.D. Levine Coccidia and intestinal nematodes of east central Illinois cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 170 1977 1411 1413
59. R.W. Haile, J.S. Witte, M. Gold, R. Cressey, C.D. McGee, R.C. Millian, A. Glasser, N. Harawa, C. Ervin, P. Harmon, J. Harper, J. Dermand, J. Alamillo, K. Barrett, M. Nides, and G. Wang The health effects of swimming in ocean water contaminated by storm drain runoff Epidemiology 10 1999 355 363
60. K.D. Hanni, J.K. Mazet, F.M. Gulland, J.A. Estes, M.M. Staedler, M.J. Murray, M.A. Miller, and D. Jessup Clinical pathology and assessment of pathogen exposure in southern and Alaskan sea otters J. Wildl. Dis. 39 2003 837 850
61. R.E. Hill Jr., J.J. Zimmerman, R.W. Willis, S. Patton, and W.R. Clark Seroprevalence of antibodies against Toxoplasma gondii in free-ranging mammals in Iowa J. Wildl. Dis. 34 1998 811 815
62. S.L. Hill, J.M. Cheney, G.F. Taton-Allen, J.S. Reif, C. Bruns, and M.R. Lappin Prevalence of enteric zoonotic organisms in cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 216 2000 687 692
63. P. Hofman, M.D. Drici, P. Gibelin, J.F. Michiels, and A. Thyss Prevalence of Toxoplasma myocarditis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Br. Heart J. 70 1993 376 381
64. R.E. Holliman Toxoplasmosis, behaviour and personality J. Infect. 35 1997 105 120
65. H.J. Holshuh, A.E. Sherrod, C.R. Taylor, B.F. Andrews, and E.B. Howard Toxoplasmosis in a feral northern fur seal J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 187 1985 1229 1230
66. D.K. Howe, and L.D. Sibley Toxoplasma gondii comprises three clonal lineages: correlation of parasite genotype with human disease J. Infect. Dis. 172 1995 1561 1566
67. D.O. Ho-Yen Immunocompromised patients D.O. Ho-Yen A.W.L. Joss Human Toxoplasmosis 1992 Oxford University Press Oxford and New York 184 203
68. W. Inskeep, C.H. Gardiner, R.K. Harris, J.P. Dubey, and R.T. Goldston Toxoplasmosis in Atlantic bottle-nosed dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) J. Wildl. Dis. 26 1990 377 382
69. J.B. Jackson, M.X. Kirby, W.H. Berger, K.A. Bjorndal, L.W. Botsford, B.J. Bourque, R.H. Bradbury, R. Cooke, J. Erlandson, J.A. Estes, T.P. Hughes, S. Kidwell, C.B. Lange, H.S. Lenihan, J.M. Pandolfi, C.H. Peterson, R.S. Steneck, M.J. Tegner, and R.R. Warner Historical overfishing and the recent collapse of coastal ecosystems Science 293 2001 629 637
70. J.L. Jones, D. Kruszon-Moran, and M. Wilson Toxoplasma gondii infection in the United States, 1999-2000 Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9 2003 1371 1374
71. J.L. Jones, F. Ogunmodede, J. Scheftel, E. Kirkland, A. Lopez, J. Schulkin, and R. Lynfield Toxoplasmosis-related knowledge and practices among pregnant women in the United States Infect. Dis. Obstet. Gynecol. 11 2003 139 145
72. K. Kanaan, K.S. Guruge, N.J. Thomas, S. Tanabe, and J.P. Giesy Butylin residues in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) found dead along California coastal waters Environ. Sci. Technol. 32 1998 1169 1175
73. Y. Kikuchi, B.B. Chomel, R.W. Kasten, J.S. Martenson, P.K. Swift, and S.J. O'Brien Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in American free-ranging or captive pumas (Felis concolor) and bobcats (Lynx rufus) Vet. Parasitol. 120 2004 1 9
74. C. Kreuder, M.A. Miller, D. Jessup, L.J. Lowenstine, M.D. Harris, J.A. Ames, T.E. Carpenter, P.A. Conrad, and J.K. Mazet Patterns of mortality in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) from 1998-2001 J. Wildl. Dis. 39 2003 495 509
75. P. Labelle, J.P. Dubey, I. Mikaelian, N. Blanchette, R. Lafond, S. St-Onge, and D. Martineau Seroprevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in lynx (Lynx canadensis) and bobcats (Lynx rufus) from Quebec, Canada J. Parasitol. 87 2001 1194 1196
76. W.C. Ladiges, R.F. DiGiacomo, and R.A. Yamaguchi Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies and oocysts in pound-source cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 180 1982 1334 1335
77. M.R. Lappin, C.E. Greene, A.K. Prestwood, D.L. Dawe, and R.L. Tarleton Diagnosis of recent Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats using a enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for immunoglobulin M Am. J. Vet. Res. 50 1989 1580 1585
78. M.R. Lappin, C.E. Greene, A.K. Prestwood, D.L. Dawe, and R.L. Tarleton Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for the detection of circulating antigens of Toxoplasma gondii in the serum of cats Am. J. Vet. Res. 50 1989 1586 1590
79. M.R. Lappin, C.E. Greene, A.K. Prestwood, D.L. Dawe, and A. Marks Prevalence of Toxoplasma gondii infection in cats in Georgia using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays for IgM, IgG, and antigens Vet. Parasitol. 33 1989 225 230
80. M.R. Lappin, A. Marks, C.E. Greene, J.K. Collins, J. Carman, J.S. Reif, and C.C. Powell Serologic prevalence of selected infectious diseases in cats with uveitis J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 201 1992 1005 1009
81. S. Larson, R. Jameson, M. Etnier, M. Flemming, and P. Beatzen Loss of genetic diversity in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) associated with the fur trade of the 18th and 19th centuries Mol. Ecol. 11 2002 1899
82. T. Lehmann, C.R. Blackston, S.F. Parmley, J.S. Remington, and J.P. Dubey Strain typing of Toxoplasma gondii: comparision of antigen-coding and housekeeping genes J. Parasitol. 86 2000 960 971
83. D.L. Leighton Studies of food preferences in algivorous invertebrates in southern California kelp beds Pacific Science 20 1966 104 113
84. J.K. Levy, and P.C. Crawford Humane strategies for controlling feral cat populations J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 255 2004 1354 1360
85. D.S. Lindsay, M.V. Collins, S.M. Mitchell, R.A. Cole, G.J. Flick, C.N. Wetch, A. Lindquist, and J.P. Dubey Sporulation and survival of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in seawater J. Eukaryot. Microbiol. 50S 2003 687 688
86. D.S. Lindsay, M.V. Collins, S.M. Mitchell, C.N. Wetch, A.C. Rosypal, G.J. Flick, A.M. Zajac, A. Lindquist, and J.P. Dubey Survival of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts in Eastern oysters (Crassostrea virginica) J. Parasitol. 90 2004 1054 1057
87. A. Lopez, V.J. Dietz, M. Wilson, T. Navin, and J.L. Jones Preventing congenital toxoplasmosis Morb. Mort. Wkly. Rep. 49 2000 59 75
88. J.S. Lubroth, D.W. Dreesen, and R.A. Ridenhour The role of rodents and other wildlife in the epidemiology of swine toxoplasmosis Prev. Vet. Med. 1 1982 169 178
89. B.J. Luft, and R.S. Remington Toxoplasmic encephalitis in AIDS Clin. Infect. Dis. 15 1992 211 222
90. B.J. Luria, J.K. Levy, M.R. Lappin, E.B. Breitschwerdt, A.M. Legendre, and J.A. Hernandez Prevalence of infectious diseases in feral cats in Northern Florida J. Feline Med. Surg. 6 2004 287 296
91. A.A. Marchiondo, D.W. Duszynski, and G.O. Maupin Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in wild and domestic animals of New Mexico, Arizona and Colorado J. Wildl. Dis. 12 1976 226 232
92. L. Matturri, P. Quattrone, C. Varesi, and L. Rossi Cardiac toxoplasmosis in pathology of acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Panminerva Med. 32 1990 194 196
93. J. McAuley, K.M. Boyer, D. Patel, M. Mets, C. Swisher, N. Roizen, C. Wolters, L. Stein, M. Stein, and W. Schey Early and longitudinal evaluations of treated infants and children and untreated historical patients with congenital toxoplasmosis: the Chicago Collaborative Treatment Trial Clin. Infect. Dis. 18 1994 38 72
94. T. McCarthy Nowhere to roam: wildlife reserves alone cannot protect big cats. A look at new ways to save them Time 164 2003 44 53
95. W.F. McCulloch, B.G. Foster, and J.L. Braun Serologic survey of toxoplasmosis in Iowa domestic animals J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 144 1964 272 275
96. H.R. McKinney A study of Toxoplasma infections in cats by the indirect fluorescent antibody method Vet. Med. Sm. Anim. Clin. 68 1973 493 495
97. P.S. Mead, L. Slutsker, V. Dietz, L.F. McCaig, J.S. Bresee, C. Shapiro, P.M. Griffin, and R.V. Tauxe Food-related illness and death in the United States Emerg. Infect. Dis. 5 1999 607 625
98. R.M. Measures, J.P. Dubey, P. Labelle, and D. Martineau Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii in Canadian pinnipeds J. Wildl. Dis. 40 2004 294 300
99. G. Migaki, J.F. Allen, and H.W. Casey Toxoplasmosis in a California sea lion Am. J. Vet. Res. 38 1977 135 136
100. M.A. Miller, K. Sverlow, P.R. Crosbie, B.C. Barr, L.J. Lowenstine, F.M. Gulland, A. Packham, and P.A. Conrad Isolation and characterization of two parasitic protozoa from a Pacific harbor seal (Phoca vitulina richardsi) with meningoencephalomyelitis J. Parasitol. 87 2001 816 822
101. M.A. Miller, I.A. Gardner, A. Packham, J.K. Mazet, K.D. Hanni, D. Jessup, R. Jameson, E. Dodd, B.C. Barr, L.J. Lowenstine, F.M. Gulland, and P.A. Conrad Evaluation and application of an indirect fluorescent antibody test (IFAT) for detection of Toxoplasma gondii in sea otters (Enhydra lutris) J. Parasitol. 88 2002 594 599
102. M.A. Miller, I.A. Gardner, C. Kreuder, D. Paradies, K. Worcester, D. Jessup, E. Dodd, M. Harris, J. Ames, A. Packham, and P.A. Conrad Coastal freshwater runoff is a risk factor for Toxoplasma gondii infection of southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) Int. J. Parasitol. 32 2002 997 1006
103. M.A. Miller, M.E. Grigg, C. Kreuder, E.R. James, A.C. Melli, P.R. Crosbie, D. Jessup, J.C. Boothroyd, E. Brownstein, and P.A. Conrad An unusual genotype of Toxoplasma gondii is common in California sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) and is a cause of mortality Int. J. Parasitol. 34 2004 275 284
104. W.A. Miller, E.R. Atwill, I.A. Gardner, M.A. Miller, H.M. Fritz, R.P. Hedrick, A.C. Melli, N.M. Barnes, and P.A. Conrad Clams (Corbicula fluminea) as bioindicators of fecal contamination with Cryptosporidium and Giardia spp. in freshwater ecosystems in California Int. J. Parasitol. 35 2005 673 684
105. Miller, W.A., Miller, M.A., Gardner, I.A., Atwill, E.R., Harris, M., Ames, J., Jessup, D. Melli, A., Paradies, D., Worcester, K., Olin, P., Barnes, N., Conrad, P.A., in press. New genotypes and factors associated with Cryptosporidium detection in mussels (Mytilus spp.) along the California coast. Int. J. Parasitol.
106. H. Nakata, K. Kanaan, L. Jing, N.J. Thomas, S. Tanabe, and J.P. Giesy Accumulation pattern of organochlorine pesticides and polychlorinated biphenyls in southern sea otters (Enhydra lutris nereis) found stranded along coatal California. USA Environ. Pollut. 103 1998 45 53
107. F.B. Nutter, J.P. Dubey, J.F. Levine, E.B. Breitschwerdt, R.B. Ford, and M.K. Stoskopf Seroprevalences of antibodies against Bartonella henselae and Toxoplasma gondii and fecal shedding of Cryptosporidium spp, Giardia spp, and Toxocara cati in feral and pet domestic cats J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 225 2004 1394 1398
108. A.E. Packham, K.W. Sverlow, P.A. Conrad, E.F. Loomis, J.D. Rowe, M.L. Anderson, A.E. Marsh, C. Cray, and B.C. Barr A modified agglutination test for Neospora caninum: development, optimization, and comparison to the indirect fluorescent-antibody test and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay Clin. Diagnost. Lab. Immunol. 5 1998 467 473
109. D. Parker, and P. Kalvass Sea urchins W.L. Leet C.M. Dewees C.W. Haugen California's Living Marine Resources and their Utilization. Sea Grant Extension Publication UCSGEP-91-12, Sea Grant Extension Program 1992 Wildlife and Fisheries Biology Department, University of California Davis, CA 41 43
110. J.A. Patz, T.K. Graczyk, N. Geller, and A.Y. Vittor Effects of environmental change on emerging parasitic diseases Int. J. Parasitol. 30 2000 1395 1405
111. J.A. Patz, P. Daszak, G.M. Tabor, A.A. Aguirre, M. Pearl, J. Epstein, N.D. Wolfe, A.M. Kilpatrick, J. Foufopoulos, D. Molyneux, and D.J. Bradley Members of the Working Group on Land Use Change and Disease Emergence, Unhealthy landscapes: policy recommendations on land use change and infectious disease emergence Environ. Health Perspect. 112 2004 1092 1098
112. J.D. Philippa, F.A. Leighton, P.Y. Daoust, O. Nielsen, M. Pagliarulo, H. Schwantje, T. Shury, R. Van Herwijnen, B.E. Martina, T. Kuiken, M.W. Van de Bildt, and A.D. Osterhaus Antibodies to selected pathogens in free-ranging terrestrial carnivores and marine mammals in Canada Vet. Rec. 155 2004 135 140
113. C. Renold, A. Sugar, J.P. Chave, L. Perrin, J. Delavelle, G. Pizzolato, P. Burkhard, V. Gabriel, and B. Hirschel Toxoplasma encephalitis in patients with the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome Medicine (Baltimore) 71 1992 224 239
114. M.L. Riedman, and J.A. Estes The sea otter (Enhydra lutris): behavior, ecology, and natural history Biological Report 90 (14) 1990 US Department of the Interior, Fish & Wildlife Service Washington, DC pp. 1-117
115. H.P. Riemann, J.A. Howarth, R. Ruppanner, C.E. Franti, and D.E. Behymer Toxoplasma antibodies among bobcats and other carnivores of northern California J. Wildl. Dis. 11 1975 272 276
116. H.P. Riemann, R.A. Thompson, D.E. Behymer, and R. Ruppanner Toxoplasmosis and Q fever antibodies among wild carnivores in California J. Wildl. Manage. 42 1978 198 202
117. S.P.D. Riley, J. Foley, and B. Chomel Exposure to feline and canine pathogens in bobcats and gray foxes in urban and rural zones of a National Park in California J. Wildl. Dis. 40 2004 11 22
118. S.J. Rodgers, and C.A. Baldwin A serologic survey of Oklahoma cats for antibodies to feline immunodeficiency virus, coronavirus, and Toxoplasma gondii and for antigen to feline leukemia virus J. Vet. Diagn. Invest. 2 1990 180 183
119. L.D. Sibley, and J.C. Boothroyd Virulent strains of T. gondii comprise a single clonal lineage Nature 359 1992 82 85
120. L.D. Sibley, D.G. Mordue, C. Su, P.M. Robben, and D.K. Howe Genetic approaches to studying virulence and pathogenesis Philos. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. Ser. B 357 2002 81 88
121. D.D. Smith, and J.K. Frenkel Prevalence of antibodies to Toxoplasma gondii in wild mammals from Missouri and east central Kansas: biologic and ecologic considerations of transmission J. Wildl. Dis. 31 1995 15 21
122. K.E. Smith, J.J. Zimmerman, S. Patton, G.W. Beran, and H.T. Hill The epidemiology of toxoplasmosis on Iowa swine farms with an emphasis on the roles of free-living mammals Vet. Parasitol. 42 1992 199 211
123. O.A. Soave Serologic survey for Toxoplasma antibodies in a colony of research dogs and cats in California Am. J. Vet. Res. 29 1968 1505 1506
124. B. Stray-Pedersen Toxoplasmosis in pregnancy. Baillières Clin. Obstet. Gynaecol. 7 1993 107 137
125. C. Su, D. Evans, R.H. Cole, J.C. Kissinger, J.W. Ajioka, and L.D. Sibley Recent expansion of Toxoplasma through enhanced oral transmission Science 299 2003 414 416
126. A.M. Tenter, A.R. Heckeroth, and L.M. Weiss Toxoplasma gondii: from animals to humans Int. J. Parasitol. 30 2000 1217 1258
127. S.M. Teutsch, D.D. Juranek, A. Sulzer, J.P. Dubey, and R.K. Sikes Epidemic toxoplasmosis associated with infected cats N. Engl. J. Med. 300 1979 695 699
128. N.J. Thomas, and R.A. Cole The Risk of Disease and Threats to the Wild Population Endangered Species Update Special Issue: Conservation and Management of the Southern Sea Otter vol. 13 1996 pp. 23-27
129. E.F. Torrey, and R.H. Yolken Toxoplasma gondii and schizophrenia Emerg. Infect. Dis. 9 2003 1375 1380
130. S.K. Volkman, and D.L. Hartl Parasitology. A game of cat and mouth. Science 299 2003 353 354
131. M.R. Vollaire, S.V. Radecki, and M.R. Lappin Seroprevalence of Toxoplasma gondii antibodies in clinically ill cats of the United States Am. J. Vet. Res. 66 2005 874 877
132. C.B. Wilson, J.S. Remington, S. Stagno, and D.W. Reynolds Development of adverse sequelae in children born with subclinical congenital Toxoplasma infection Pediatrics 66 1980 767 774
133. C.J. Witt, T.R. Moench, A.M. Gittelsoh, B.D. Bishop, and J.E. Childs Epidemiologic observations on feline immunodeficiency virus and Toxoplasma gondii coinfection in cats in Baltimore, MD J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. 194 1989 229 233
134. S.M. Yilmaz, and S.H. Hopkins Effects of different conditions on duration of infectivity of Toxoplasma gondii oocysts J. Parasitol. 58 1972 938 939
135. R.L. Zarnke, J.P. Dubey, J.M. Ver Hoef, M.E. McNay, and O.C.H. Kwok Serologic survey for Toxoplasma gondii in lynx from interior Alaska J. Wildl. Dis. 37 2001 36 38