Plant pathogens in irrigation water: Challenges and opportunities

Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences

Volumn 24, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 189-208

  Hong, C X ^a   Moorman, G W ^b  

^a VIRGINIA POLYTECHNIC INSTITUTE AND STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b PENNSYLVANIA STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

Aquatic ecology; Biological threshold; IPM; Pathogen detection and monitoring; Water resource conservation and protection

Indexed keywords

FUNGI; NEMATODA; PHYTOPHTHORA; PYTHIUM;

EID: 24644471869     PISSN: 07352689     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/07352680591005838     Document Type: Review

References (219)

1. Albouy, J., Berkelmann, B., Deogratias, J. M., Damy, I., Krczal, G., Kusiak, C., and Wohanka, W. 1993. Transmission of pelargonium flower break virus by irrigation systems, Pelargonium pollen, and thrips. Petria 3: 1.
2. Ali-Shtayeh, M. S., and MacDonald, J. D. 1991. Occurrence of Phytophthora species in irrigation water in the Nablus area (West Bank of Jordan). Phytopath. Medit. 30: 143-150.
3. Ali-Shtayeh, M. S., MacDonald, J. D., and Kabashima, J. 1991. A method for using commercial ELISA tests to detect zoospores of Phytophthora and Pythium species in irrigation water. Plant Dis. 75: 305-311.
4. Austin, R. 1989. Bromination vs. chlorination. Intl. Plant Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 39: 310-311.
5. Bailey, A. M., Mitchell, D. J., Manjunath, K. L., Nolasco, G., and Niblett, C. L. 2002. Identification to the species level of the plant pathogens Phytophthora and Pythium by using unique sequences of the ITS1 region of ribosomal DNA as capture probes for PCR ELISA. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 207: 153-158.
6. Baker, K. F., and Cook, R. J. 1974. Biological Control of Plant Pathogens. W. H. Freeman, San Francisco, CA.
7. Banko, T. J., Hong, C. X., and Richardson, P. A. 2004. Reduction in Phytophthora disease with increased inoculum application pressure. Phytopathology 94: S6.
8. Barrett, J. M., Bryck, J., Collins, M. R., Janonis, B. A., and Logsdon, G. S. 1991. Manual of Design for Slow Sand Filtration. American Water Works Association, Denver, CO.
9. Bates, M. L., and Stanghellini, M. E. 1984. Root rot of hydroponically grown spinach caused by Pythium aphanidermatum and P. dissotocum. Plant Dis. 68: 989-991.
10. Berkelmann, B., Wohanka, W., and Krczal, G. 1995. Transmission of Pelargonium flower break virus (PFBV) by recirculating nutrient solutions with and without slow sand filtration. Acta Horticulturae 382: 256-262.
11. Bewley, W. F., and Buddin, W. 1921. On the fungus flora of glasshouse water supplies in relation to plant diseases. Ann. Appl. Biol. 8: 10-19.
12. Boehm, M. J., and Hoitink, H. A. J. 1992. Sustenance of microbial activity in potting mixes and its impact on severity of Pythium root rot of poinsettia. Phytopathology 82: 259-264.
13. Bonants, P., Hagenaar-de Weerdt, M., van Gent-Pelzer, M., Lacourt, I., Cooke, D., and Duncan, J. 1997. Detection and identification of Phytophthora fragariae Hickman by the polymerase chain reaction. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 103: 345-355.
14. Bonants, P. J. M., van Gent-Pelzer, M. P. E., and Hagenaar-de Weerdt, M. 2000. Characterization and detection of Phytophthora fragariae in plant, water, and soil by molecular methods. OEPP/EPPO Bull. 30: 525-531.
15. Bugbee, G. J. 1987. Can chlorinated water harm your plants? Greenhouse Grower 62-63.
16. Bush, E. A. 2002. Characterization of Phytophthora Species in Recycled Irrigation Water at a Container Nursery in Southwestern Virginia. M. S. Thesis, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA.
17. Bush, E. A., Hong, C. X., and Stromberg, E. L. 2003. Fluctuations of Phytophthora and Pythium spp. in components of a recycling irrigation system. Plant Dis. 87: 1500-1506.
18. Calvo-Bado, L. A., Pettitt, T. R., Parsons, N., Petch, G. M., Morgan, J. A. W., and Whipps, J. M. 2003. Spatial and temporal analysis of the microbial community in slow sand filters used for treating horticultural irrigation water. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 69: 2116-2125.
19. Cappaert, M. R., Powelson, M. L., Franc, G. D., and Harrison, M. D. 1988. Irrigation water as a source of inoculum of soft rot Erwinias for aerial stem rot of potatoes. Phytopathology 78: 1668-1672.
20. Chowdappa, P., Brayford, D., Smith, J., and Flood, J. 2003. Identity of Phytophthora associated with arecanut and its relationship with rubber and cardamom isolates based on RFLP of PCR-amplified ITS regions of rDNA and AFLP fingerprints. Cur. Sci. 85: 585-587.
21. Cohen, Y., and Coffey, M. D. 1986. Systemic fungicides and the control of Oomycetes. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 24: 311-338.
22. Cohn, D., and Hong, C. X. 2003. Efficacy of ultraviolet irradiance for disinfesting recycled irrigation water. Phytopathology 93: S123.
23. Collins, M. R., and Graham, M. J. D. 1994. Slow Sand Filtration. American Water Works Association Publication, Denver, CO, USA.
24. Cook, R. J., and Baker, K. F. 1983. The Nature and Practice of Biological Control of Plant Pathogens. APS Press, St. Paul, MN, USA.
25. Cooke, W. B. 1956. Potential plant pathogenic fungi in sewage and polluted water. Plant Dis. Rep. 40: 681-687.
26. Cother, E. J., and Gilbert, R. L. 1990. Presence of Erwinia chrysanthemi in two major river systems and their alpine sources in Australia. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 69: 729-738.
27. Datnoff, L. E., Kroll, T. K., and Lacy, G. H. 1987. Efficacy of chlorine for decontaminating water infested with resting spores of Plasmodiophora brassicae. Plant Dis. 71: 734-736.
28. Datnoff, L. E., Lacy, G. H., and Fox, J. A. 1984. Occurrence and populations of Plasmodiophora brassicae in sediments of irrigation water sources. Plant Dis. 68: 200-203.
29. Daughtry, B. 1984. Chlorination of irrigation water. Intl. Plant Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 33: 596-599.
30. Daughtry, B. 1988. Control of Phytophthora and Pythium by chlorination of irrigation water. Intl. Plant Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 38: 420-422.
31. Deacon, J. W., and Berry, L. A. 1993. Biocontrol of soil-borne plant pathogens: concepts and their application. Pestic. Sci. 37: 417-426.
32. Deacon, J. W., and Donaldson, S. P. 1993. Molecular recognition in the homing responses of zoosporic fungi, with special reference to Pythium and Phytophthora. Mycol. Res. 97: 1153-1171.
33. Demirci, A. 2002. Novel processing technologies for food safety. J. Assoc. Food Drug Officials 66: 1-8.
34. Diab, H. G., Hu, S., and Benson, D. M. 2003. Suppression of Rhizoctonia solani on Impatiens by enhanced microbial activity in composted swine waste- amended potting mixes. Phytopathology 93: 1115-1123.
35. Downey, D., Giles, D. K., Delwiche, M. J., and MacDonald, J. D. 1998. Development and validation of a general model for predicting biological efficacy of UV reactors against plant pathogens in irrigation water. Trans. ASAE 41: 849-857.
36. Dukes, P. D., Jenkins, S. F., and Thompson, S. S. 1977. Detection and some observations of Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae in ponds used for irrigation of tobacco. Tobacco Sci. 21: 97-100.
37. Easton, G. D., Nagle, N. E., and Bailey, D. L. 1969. A method of estimating Verticillium alboatrum propagules in field soil and irrigation waste water. Phytopathology 59: 1171-1172.
38. Eayre, C. G., Bartz, J. A., and Concelmo, D. E. 1995. Bacteriophages of Erwinia carotovora and Erwinia ananas isolated from freshwater lakes. Plant Dis. 79: 801-804.
39. Ehret, D. L., Alsanius, B., Wohanka, W., Menzies, J. G., and Utkhede, R. 2001. Disinfestation of recirculating nutrient solutions in greenhouse horticulture. Agronomie 21: 323-339.
40. Ellis, K. V. 1985. Slow sand filtration. CRC Crit. Rev. Environ. Control 15: 315-352.
41. Ercolini, D. 2004. PCR-DGGE fingerprinting: novel strategies for detection of microbes in food. J. Microbiol. Meth. 56: 297-314.
42. Evans, S. G. 1979. Susceptibility of plants to fungal pathogens when grown by the nutrient-film technique (NFT). Plant Pathol. 28: 45-48.
43. Faulkner, L. R., and Bolander, W. J. 1967. Occurrence of large nematode populations in irrigation canals of south central Washington. Nematologica 12: 591-600.
44. Faulkner, L. R., and Bolander, W. J. 1970. Agriculturally-polluted irrigation water as a source of plant-parasitic nematode infestation. J. Nematol. 2: 368-374.
45. Feld, S. J., Menge, J. A., and Stolzy, L. H. 1990. Influence of drip and furrow irrigation on Phytophthora root rot of citrus under field and greenhouse conditions. Plant Dis. 74: 21-27.
46. Fett, W. F. 2002. Reduction of the native microflora on alfalfa sprouts during propagation by addition of antimicrobial compounds to the irrigation water. Intl. J. Food Microbiol. 72: 13-18.
47. Fortnum, B. A., Rideout, J., Martin, S. B., and Gooden, D. 2000. Nutrient solution temperature affects Pythium root rot of tobacco in greenhouse float systems. Plant Dis. 84: 289-294.
48. Garzón, C. D. 2004. Molecular Characterization of Selected Pythium Species. Ph. D. Dissertation, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
49. Gill, D. L. 1970, Pathogenic Pythium from irrigation ponds. Plant Dis. Rep. 54: 1077-1079.
50. Gladstone, L. A., and Moorman, G. W. 1989. Pythium root rot of seedling geraniums associated with various concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorus, and sodium chloride. Plant Dis. 73: 733-736.
51. Goldberg, N. P., and Stanghellini, M. E. 1990. Ingestion-egestion and aerial transmission of Pythium aphanidermatum by shore flies (Ephydrinae: Scatella stagnalis). Phytopathology 80: 1244-1246.
52. Grech, N. M., Frean, R. T., and Williams, G. 1989. Ultraviolet irradiation and filtration of irrigation water in citrus and subtropical fruit nurseries. Phytophylactica 21: 247-249.
53. Grech, N. M., and Rijkenberg, F. H. J. 1992. Injection of electrolytically generated chlorine into citrus microirrigation systems for the control of certain waterborne root pathogens. Plant Dis. 76: 457-461.
54. Guetsky, R., Shtienberg, D., Elad, Y., Fischer, E., and Dinoor, A. 2002. Improving biological control by combining biocontrol agents each with several mechanisms of disease suppression. Phytopathology 92: 976-985.
55. Haglund, W. A., Gabrielson, R. L., and Tompkins, U. R. 1972. Selective soil fungicides as an aid in the identification of soil-borne plant pathogens. Phytopathology 62: 287-289.
56. Hall, R. 1979. Fungitoxicants and fungal taxonomy. Bot. Rev. 45: 1-14.
57. Hansen, E., Hesse, C., Reeser, P., Sutton, W., and Winton, L. 2005. Using single strand conformational polymorphisms (SSCP) to identify Phytophthora species in Oregon forests affected by sudden oak death. In: Sudden Oak Death, 2nd Science Symposium - The State of Our Knowledge, p. 28. Shea, P. J., and Standiford, R. B., Eds., Monterey, CA.
58. Harrison, M. D., Franc, G. D., Maddox, D. A., Michaud, J. E., and McCarter- Zorner, N. J. 1987. Presence of Erwinia carotovora in surface water in North America. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 62: 565-570.
59. Harvey, J. V. 1952. Relationship of aquatic fungi to water pollution. Sewage and Industrial Wastes 24: 1159-1164.
60. Heald, C. M., and Johnson, A. W. 1969. Survival and infectivity of nematodes after passing through an overhead sprinkler irrigation system. J. Nematol. 1: 290.
61. Hockenhull, J., and Funck-Jensen, D. 1983. Is damping-off, caused by Pythium, less of a problem in hydroponics than in traditional growing systems? Acta Horticulturae 133: 137-145.
62. Hoitink, H. A. J., and Boehm, M. J. 1999. Biocontrol within the context of soil microbial communities: A substrate-dependent phenomenon. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 37: 427-446.
63. Hoitink, H. A. J., Fynn, R. P., McMahon, R. W., and Atmatjidou, V. 1991. Transmission of plant pathogens in an ebb and flood system. Ohio Florists' Assoc. Bull. 742: 5-9.
64. Hoitink, H. A. J., Inbar, Y., and Boehm, M. J. 1991. Status of compost-amended potting mixes naturally suppressive to soilborne diseases of floricultural crops. Plant Dis. 75:869-873.
65. Hong, C. X., Bush, E. A., Richardson, P. A., and Stromberg, E. L. 2001. The major deterrent to recycling irrigation water in nursery and greenhouse operations despite lack of alternatives for limiting nonpoint source pollution. Proc. Virginia Water Res. Symp. 1: 72-77.
66. Hong, C. X., Cohn, D., Kong, P., and Richardson, P. A. 2002a. Economic significance to nursery production of Phytophthora species present in irrigation water. Proc. South. Nurs. Assoc. Res. Conf. 47: 237-240.
67. Hong, C. X., and Epelman, G. 2000. Development of Phytophthora blight of annual vinca irrigated with contaminated water. Proc. South. Nurs. Assoc. Res. Conf. 45: 233-235.
68. Hong, C. X., and Epelman, G. 2001. Effect of pathogen concentration and exposure frequency on Phytophthora blight of annual vinca under drip irrigation systems. Phytopathology 91: S40.
69. Hong, C. X., Kong, P., and Richardson, P. A. 2002b. Epidemiological significance of Phytophthora species present in recycled irrigation water to ornamental production. Phytopathology 92: S144.
70. Hong, C. X., and Richardson, P. A. 2004. Efficacy of chlorine on Pythium pathogens in irrigation water. Proc. South. Nurs. Assoc. Res. Conf. 49: 265-267.
71. Hong, C. X., Richardson, P. A., and Kong, P. 2002c. Comparison of membrane filters as a tool for isolating pythiaceous species from irrigation water. Phytopathology 92: 610-616.
72. Hong, C. X., Richardson, P. A., and Kong, P. 2003a. Factors affecting baiting assays for Phytophthora species in irrigation water. Proc. South. Nurs. Assoc. Res. Conf. 48: 224-226.
73. Hong, C. X., Richardson, P. A., Kong, P., and Bush, E. A. 2003b. Efficacy of chlorine on multiple species of Phytophthora in recycled nursery irrigation water. Plant Dis. 87: 1183-1189.
74. Hoover, D. G. 1992. Pressure effects on biological systems. Food Technol. 47: 150-155.
75. Huang, H., Jeffers, S. N., Layne, D. R., and Schnabel, G. 2004. AFLP analysis of Phytophthora cactorum isolates from strawberry and other hosts: Implications for identifying the primary source of inoculum. Plant Dis. 88: 714-720.
76. Irwin, R. D., and Vaughan, E. K. 1972. Bacterial rot of onion and the relation of irrigation water to disease incidence. Phytopathology 62: 1103.
77. Jeffers, S. N., and Martin, S. B. 1986. Comparison of two media selective for Phytophthora and Pythium species. Plant Dis. 70: 1038-1043.
78. Jenkins, S. F., and Averre, C. W. 1983. Root diseases of vegetables in hydroponic culture systems in North Carolina greenhouses. Plant Dis. 67: 968-970.
79. Jeong, M. J., Jang, S. S., and Park, C. S. 1997. Influence of soil pH and salinity on antagonistic activity and rhizosphere competence of biocontrol agents. Korean J. Plant Pathol. 13:416-420
80. Jorge, P. E., and Harrison, M. D. 1986. The association of Erwinia carotovora with surface water in northeastern Colorado. I. The presence and populations of the bacterium in relation to location, season, and water temperature. Am. Potato J. 63: 517-531.
81. Kabashima, J. N. 1993. Innovative irrigation techniques in nursery production to reduce water usage. Hortscience 28: 291-293.
82. Kageyama, K., Suzuki, M., Priyatmojo, A., Oto, Y., Ishiguro, K., Suga, H., Aoyagi, T., and Fukui, H. 2003. Characterization and identification of asexual strains of Pythium associated with root rot of rose in Japan. J. Phytopathol. 151: 485-491.
83. Kaminiski, K., Wagner, S., Werres, S., Beltz, H., Seipp, D., and Brand, T. 2005. Infectivity and survival of P. ramorum in recirculation water of nurseries. In: Sudden Oak Death, 2nd Science Symposium - The State of Our Knowledge, p. 104. Shea, P. J., and Standiford, R. B., Eds., Monterey, CA.
84. Kegler, H., Griesbach, E., and Skadow, K. 1982. Ausbreitung von Pathogenen beim Tomatenanbau im NFT-Verfahren. Archiv fur Gartenbau 7: 325-337.
85. Kelman, A., Person, L. H., and Hebert, T. T. 1957. A bacterial stalk rot of irrigated corn in North Carolina. Plant Dis. Rep. 41: 798-802.
86. Kliejunas, J. T., and Ko, W. H. 1976. Dispersal of Phytophthora cinnamomi on the island of Hawaii. Phytopathology 66: 457-460.
87. Klotz, L. J., Wong, P. P., and DeWolfe, T. A. 1959. Survey of irrigation water for the presence of Phytophthora spp. pathogenic to citrus. Plant Dis. Rep. 43: 830-832.
88. Knight, S. C., Anthony, V. M., Brady, A. M., Greenland, A. J., Heaney, S. P., Murray, D. C., Powell, K. A., Schulz, M. A., Spinks, C. Z., Worthington, P. A., and Youle, D. 1997. Rationale and perspectives on the development of fungicides. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 35: 349-372.
89. Koenig, R. 1986. Plant viruses in rivers and lakes. Advances in Virus Research 31: 321-333.
90. Koenig, R., and Lesemann, D. E. 1985. Plant viruses in German rivers and lakes. I. Tombusviruses, a potexvirus and carnation mottle virus. Phytopath. Z. 112: 105-116.
91. Kong, P., Hong, C. X., Jeffers, S. N., and Richardson, P. A. 2003a. A species- specific polymerase chain reaction assay for rapid detection of Phytophthora nicotianae in irrigation water. Phytopathology 93: 822-831.
92. Kong, P., Hong, C. X., and Richardson, P. A. 2003b. Rapid detection of Phytophthora cinnamomi using PCR with primers derived from the Lpv putative storage protein genes. Plant Pathol. 52: 681-693.
93. Kong, P., Richardson, P. A., and Hong, C. X. 2005. Direct colony PCR-SSCP for detection of multiple pythiaceous oomycetes in environmental samples. J. Microbiol. Meth. 61: 25-32.
94. Koohakan, P., Ikeda, H., Jeanaksorn, T., Tojo, M., Kusakari, S. I., Okada, K., and Sato, S. 2004. Evaluation of the indigenous microorganisms in soilless culture: occurrence and quantitative characteristics in the different growing systems. Sci. Hort. 101: 179-188.
95. Kramberger, P., Petrovic, N., Strancar, A., and Ravnikar, M. 2004. Concentration of plant viruses using monolithic chromatographic supports. J. Virol. Meth. 120: 51-57.
96. Lacy, G. H., Lambe, L. C., and Berg, C. M. 1981. Iris soft rot caused by Erwinia chrysanthemi, associated with overhead irrigation and its control by chlorination. Intl. Plant Prop. Soc. Comb. Proc. 31: 624-634.
97. Laing, S. A. K., and Deacon, J. W. 1990. Aggressiveness and fungal host range of mycoparasitic Pythium species. Soil Biol. Biochem. 22: 905-911.
98. Lamour, K. H., Daughtrey, M. L., Benson, D. M., Hwang, J., and Hausbeck, M. K. 2003. Etiology of Phytophthora drechsleri and P. nicotianae (= P. parasitica) diseases affecting floriculture crops. Plant Dis. 87: 854-858.
99. Lauderdale, C. C., and Jones, R. K. 1997. Monitoring irrigation ponds for Phytophthora sp. Proc. South. Nurs. Assoc. Res. Conf. 42: 225-226.
100. Lévesque, C. A., Harlton, C. E., and de Cock, A. W. A. M. 1998. Identification of some oomycetes by reverse dot blot hybridization. Phytopathology 88: 213-222.
101. Lévesque, C. A., Vrain, T. C., and De Boer, S. H. 1994. Development of a species-specific probe for Pythium ultimum using amplified ribosomal DNA. Phytopathology 84: 474-478.
102. Lievens, B., Brouwer, M., Vanachter, A., Levesque, C. A., Cammue, B. P. A., and Thomma, B. 2003. Design and development of a DNA array for rapid detection and identification of multiple tomato vascular wilt pathogens. FEMS Microbiol. Lett. 223: 113-122.
103. Liu, S. D., and Baker, R. 1980. Mechanism of biological control in soil suppressive to Rhizoctonia. Phytopathology 70: 404-412.
104. Logsdon, G. S. 1990. Microbiology and drinking water filtration. In: Drinking Water Microbiology. pp. 120-146. McFeters, G. A., Ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, NY.
105. Lyr, H. 1995. Selectivity in modern fungicides and its basis. In: Modern Selective Fungicides. pp. 13-22. Fischer, G., Ed., Verlag, New York, NY.
106. MacDonald, J. D., Abeliovich, A., Lagunas-Solar, M., Faiman, D., and Kabashima, J. 1997. Treatment of irrigation effluent water to reduce nitrogenous contaminants and plant pathogens, pp. 1-47. BARD Scientific Reports. BARD, Bet Dagan, Israel.
107. MacDonald, J. D., Ali-Shtayeh, M. S., Kabashima, J., and Stites, J. 1994. Occurrence of Phytophthora species in recirculated nursery irrigation effluents. Plant Dis. 78: 607-611.
108. Maloney, P. E., Kane, S. F., Jensen, C. E., and Rizzo, D. M. 2002. Epidemiology and ecology of Phytophthora ramorum in redwood/tanoak forest ecosystems of the California coast range. In: Sudden Oak Death, A Science Symposium - The State of Our Knowledge, p. 11. Shea, P. J., and Standiford, R. B., Eds., Monterey, CA.
109. Martin, F. N., and Loper, J. E. 1999. Soilborne plant diseases caused by Pythium spp: Ecology, epidemiology, and prospects for biological control. Crit. Rev. Plant Sci. 18: 111-181.
110. Mazzoni, A. M., Sharma, R. R., Demirci, A., and Ziegler, G. R. 2001. Supercritical carbon dioxide treatment for microbial safety of alfalfa seeds. J. Food Safety 21: 215-223.
111. McCarter-Zorner, N. J., Franc, G. D., Harrison, M. D., Michaud, C. E., Quinn, I., Sells, I. A., and Graham, D. C. 1984. Soft rot Erwinia bacteria in surface and underground waters in southern Scotland and in Colorado, United States. J. Appl. Bacteriol. 57: 95-105.
112. McCracken, J. L., and Jeffers, S. N. 2000. Some factors affecting recovery of Phytophthora spp. from recycled irrigation water. Phytopathology 90: S127.
113. McIntosh, D. L. 1966. The occurrence of Phytophthora spp. in irrigation systems in British Columbia. Can. J. Bot. 44: 1591-1596.
114. Menzies, J. G., Bakkeren, G., Matheson, F., Procunier, J. D., and Woods, S. 2003. Use of inter-simple sequence repeats and amplified fragment length polymorphisms to analyze genetic relationships among small grain-infecting species of Ustilago. Phytopathology 93: 167-175.
115. Mircetich, S. M., Browne, C. T., Krueger, W., and Schreader, W. 1985. Phytophthora spp. isolated from surface-water irrigation sources in California. Phytopathololgy 75: 1346-1347.
116. Mitchell, D. J., and Zentmyer, G. A. 1971. Effects of oxygen and carbon dioxide on sporangium and oospore formation by Phytophthora spp. Phytopathology 61: 807-812.
117. Moorman, G. W. 1986. Increased mortality caused by Pythium root rot of poinsettias associated with high fertilization rates. Plant Dis. 70: 160-162.
118. Moorman, G. W., Kang, S., Geiser, D. M., and Kim, S. H. 2002. Identification and characterization of Pythium species associated with greenhouse floral crops in Pennsylvania. Plant Dis. 86: 1227-1231.
119. Moorman, G. W., and Lease, R. J. 1999. Effects of fertilizer supplements and a biological control agent on Pythium root rot of geranium, 1998. B & C Tests 14: 58-59.
120. Moulin, F., Lemanceau, P., and Alabouvette, C. 1994. Pathogenicity of Pythium species on cucumber in peat-sand, rockwool and hydroponics. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 100: 3-17.
121. Murphy, S. K., Bienapfl, J., Rizzo, D. M., Valachovic, Y., and Lee, C. 2005. Monitoring Phytophthora ramorum distribution in streams within coastal California watersheds. In: Sudden Oak Death, 2nd Science Symposium - The State of Our Knowledge, p. 108. Shea, P. J. and Standiford, R. B., Eds., Monterey, CA.
122. Muyzer, G. 1999. DGGE/TGGE a method for identifying genes from natural ecosystems. Cur. Opinion Microbiol. 2: 317-322.
123. Neher, D., and Duniway, J. M. 1992. Dispersal of Phytophthora parasitica in tomato fields by furrow irrigation. Plant Dis. 76: 582-586.
124. Nielsen, C. J., Stanghellini, M. E., and Ferrin, D. M. 2004. Phytophthora in recirculating cultural systems: The influence of different irrigation regimes on disease development. Phytopathology 94: S153.
125. Norman, D. J., Yuen, J. M. F., Resendiz, R., and Boswell, J. 2003. Characterization of Erwinia populations from nursery retention ponds and lakes infecting ornamental plants in Florida. Plant Dis. 87: 193-196.
126. Oudemans, P.V. 1999. Phytophthora species associated with cranberry root rot and surface irrigation water in New Jersey. Plant Dis. 83: 251-258.
127. Owen-Going, N., Sutton, J. C., and Grodzinski, B. 2003. Relationships of Pythium isolates and sweet pepper plants in single-plant hydroponic units. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 25: 155-167.
128. Oyler, E., and Bewley, W. F. 1937. A disease of cultivated heaths caused by Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands. Ann. Appl. Biol. 24: 1-16.
129. Paludan, N. 1985. Spread of viruses by recirculated nutrient solutions in soilless cultures. Tidsskr. Planteavl 89: 467-474.
130. Paludan, V. N. 1992. Testing the efficacy of disinfectants for control of virus: Results achieved in disinfection experiments and proposal for proofing guide lines. Nachrichtenbl. Deut. Pflanzenschutzd. 44: 73-79.
131. Palzer, C. 1980. Water-borne pathogens and their simple control. Aust. Plant Pathol. 9: 11-12.
132. Pares, R. D., Gunn, L. V., and Cresswell, G. C. 1992. Tomato mosaic virus infection in a recirculating nutrient solution. J. Phytopathol. 135: 192-198.
133. Pategas, K. G., Schuerger, A. C., and Wetter, C. 1989. Management of tomato mosaic virus in hydroponically grown pepper (Capsicum annuum). Plant Dis. 73: 570-573.
134. Paulitz, T. C., and Belanger, R. R. 2001. Biological control in greenhouse systems. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 39: 103-133.
135. Petherbridge, F. R., and Jones, F. G. W. 1944. Beet eelworm (Heterodera schachtii Schm.) in East Anglia, 1934-1943. Ann. Appl. Biol. 31: 320-332.
136. Pettitt, T. 2003. Fertigation: developments in pathogen removal from recycled water. In: International Fertilizer Society, pp. 1-20. International Fertilizer Society, York, UK.
137. Pettitt, T. R., Finlay, A. R., Scott, M. A., and Davies, E. M. 1998. Development of a system simulating commercial production conditions for assessing the potential spread of Phytophthora cryptogea root rot of hardy nursery stock in recirculating irrigation water. Ann. Appl. Biol. 132: 61-75.
138. Pettitt, T. R., Wakeham, A. J., Wainwright, M. F., and White, J. G. 2002. Comparison of serological, culture, and bait methods for detection of Pythium and Phytophthora zoospores in water. Plant Pathol. 51: 720-727.
139. Pittis, J. E., and Colhoun, J. 1984. Isolation and identification of pythiaceous fungi from irrigation water and their pathogenicity to Antirrhinum, tomato and Chamaecyparis lawsoniana. Phytopath. Z. 110: 301-318.
140. Poncet, C., Offroy, M., Bonnet, G., and Brun, R. 2001. Disinfection of recycling water in rose cultures. Acta Horticulturae 547: 121-126.
141. Postma, J., Willemsen-de Klein, M., and van Elsas, J. D. 2000. Effect of the indigenous microflora on the development of root and crown rot caused by Pythium aphanidermatum in cucumber grown on rockwool. Phytopathology 90: 125-133.
142. Pottorff, L. P., and Panter, K. L. 1997. Survey of Pythium and Phytophthora spp. in irrigation water used by Colorado commercial greenhouses. HortTechnol. 7: 153-155.
143. Price, T. V., and Fox, P. 1984. Behavior of fungicides in recirculating nutrient film hydroponic systems. In: 6th International Congress on Soilless Culture, pp. 511-522. International Society for Soilless Culture, Lunteren, The Netherlands.
144. Ramon, M. P. 2003. Effects of Fertilizer, pH and Biological Control on Pythium Root Rot. M. S. Thesis, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, PA.
145. Rattink, H. 1990. Epidemiology of Fusarium wilt in cyclamen in an ebb and flow system. Neth. J. Plant Pathol. 96: 171-177.
146. Rattink, H. 1991. Epidemiology of Fusarium crown and root rot in artificial substrate systems. Med. Fac. Landbouww. Rijksuniv. Gent 56/2b: 423-430.
147. Reid, B., Morris, B. M., and Gow, N. A. R. 1995. Calcium-dependent, genus- specific, autoaggregation of zoospores of phytopathogenic fungi. Exp. Mycol. 19: 202-213.
148. Riffaud, C. M. H., and Morris, C. E. 2002. Detection of Pseudomonas syringae pv. aptata in irrigation water retention basins by immunofluorescence colony- staining. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108: 539-545.
149. Runia, W. T. 1988. Elimination of plant pathogens in drainwater from soilless cultures. In: 7th International Congress on Soilless Culture, pp. 429-443. International Society for Soilless Culture, Wageningen, The Netherlands.
150. Runia, W. T. 1994. Elimination of root-infecting pathogens in recirculating water from closed cultivation systems by ultraviolet radiation. Acta Horticulturae 381: 361-371.
151. Runia, W. T. 1995. A review of possibilities for disinfection of recirculating water from soilless cultures. Acta Horticulturae 382: 221-228.
152. Sanchez, J., and Gallego, E. 2000. Pythium spp. present in irrigation water in the Poniente region of Almeria (south-eastern Spain). Mycopathologia 150: 29-38.
153. Sanchez, J., Sanchez-Cara, J., and Gallego, E. 2000. Suitability often plant baits for the rapid detection of pathogenic Pythium species in hydroponic crops. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 106: 209-214.
154. Sanogo, S., and Moorman, G. W. 1993. Transmission and control of Pythium aphanidermatum in an ebb-and-flow subirrigation system. Plant Dis. 77: 287-290.
155. Scarpa, D. J. 2000. The quality and sustainability of the water resources available to Arab villages to the west of the divide in the southern West Bank. Water Sci. Technol. 42: 331-336.
156. Schuster, M. L. 1959. Relation of root-knot nematodes and irrigation water to the incidence and dissemination of bacterial wilt of bean. Plant Dis. Rep. 43: 27-32.
157. Shokes, F. M., and McCarter, S. M. 1976. Occurrence of plant pathogens in irrigation ponds in Southern Georgia. Proc. Am. Phytopathol. Soc. 3: 342.
158. Shokes, F. F., and McCarter, S. M. 1979. Occurrence, dissemination, and survival of plant pathogens in surface irrigation ponds in southern Georgia. Phytopathology 69: 510-516.
159. Skimina, C. A. 1992. Recycling water, nutrients and waste in the nursery industry. Hortscience 27: 968-971.
160. Smith, P. M. 1979. A study of the effects of fungitoxic compounds on Phytophthora cinnamomi in water. Ann. Appl. Biol. 93: 149-157.
161. Smith, P. M., and Ousley, M. A. 1985. Epidemiology and Control of Phytophthora Root Rot Diseases of Woody Ornamentals, pp. 102-105. Glasshouse Crops Res. Inst., Littlehampton, UK.
162. Sojka, R. E., and Entry, J. A. 2000. Influence of polyacrylamide application to soil on movement of microorganisms in runoff water. Environ. Pollution 108: 405-412.
163. Spencer, S., and Benson, D. M. 1982. Pine bark, hardwood bark compost, and peat amendment effects on development of Phytophthora spp. and lupine root rot. Phytopathology 72: 346-351.
164. Spotts, R. A., and Peaters, B. B. 1980. Chlorine and chlorine dioxide for control of d'Anjou pear decay. Plant Dis. 64: 1095-1097.
165. Spotts, R. A., and Peaters, B. B. 1982. Use of surfactants with chlorine to improve pear decay control. Plant Dis. 66:725-727.
166. Stanghellini, M. E., and Kronland, W. C. 1986. Yield loss in hydroponically grown lettuce attributed to subclinical infection of feeder rootlets by Pythium dissotocum. Plant Dis. 70: 1053-1056.
167. Stanghellini, M. E., and Miller, R. M. 1997. Biosurfactants: their identity and potential in the biological control of zoosporic plant pathogens. Plant Dis. 81: 4-12.
168. Stanghellini, M. E., Nielsen, C. J., Rim, D. H., Rasmussen, S. L., and Rorbaugh, P. A. 2000. Influence of sub- versus top-irrigation and surfactants in a recirculating system on disease incidence caused by Phytophthora spp. in potted pepper plants. Plant Dis. 84: 1147-1150.
169. Stanghellini, M. E., and Rasmussen, S. L. 1994. Hydroponics: A solution for zoosporic pathogens. Plant Dis. 78: 1129-1138.
170. Stanghellini, M. E., Rasmussen, S. L., Kim, D. H., and Rorabaugh, P. A. 1996. Efficacy of nonionic surfactants in the control of zoospore spread of Pythium aphanidermatum in a recirculating hydroponic system. Plant Dis. 80: 422-428.
171. Stanghellini, M. E., Rasumssen, S. L., and Kim, D. H. 1999. Aerial transmission of Thielaviopsis basicola, a pathogen of corn-salad, by adult shoreflies. Phytopathology 89: 476-479.
172. Stanghellini, M. E., and Tomlinson, J. A. 1987. Inhibitory and lytic effects of a nonionic surfactant on various asexual stages in the life cycle of Pythium and Phytophthora species. Phytopathology 77: 112-114.
173. Steadman, J. R., Bay, R. W., and Hammer, M. J. 1979. Plant pathogen contamination in reused irrigation waste water. Proc. Water Reuse Symp. 3: 2038-2045.
174. Steadman, J. R., Maier, C. R., Schwartz, H. F., and Kerr, E. D. 1975. Pollution of surface irrigation waters by plant pathogenic organisms. Water Resour. Bull. 11: 796-804.
175. Strong, S. S., Behe, B. K., Deneke, C. F., Bowen, K. L., and Keever, G. J. 1997. Cultivar and spacing effects on transmission of Phytophthora parasitica in an ebb-and-flow subirrigation system. Plant Dis. 81: 89-95.
176. Strong, S. S., Deneke, C. F., Behe, B. K., and Bowen, K. L. 1993. Transmission of Phytophthora Root Rot in Ebb and Flow Subirrigation Systems, p. 12. Alabama Agric. Exp. Stn, Auburn, AL.
177. Swanson, J. K., Yao, J., Tans-Kersten, J., and Allen, C. 2005. Behavior of Ralstonia solanacearum Race 3 Biovar 2 during latent and active infection of geranium. Phytopathology 95: 136-143.
178. Takahashi, M. 1952. A comparative study on the pathogenicity of two species of aquatic Pythium, P. aphanidermatum and P. monospermum. Ann. Phytopath. Soc. Japan 16: 19-22.
179. Taylor, P. A. 1977. Phytophthora spp. in irrigation water in the Goulburn Valley, Victoria. Aust. Plant Pathol. Soc. Newslett. 6: 9-12.
180. Themann, K., and Werres, S. 1998. Verwendung von Rhododendronblä ttern zum Nachweis von Phytophthora-Arten in Wurzel- und Bodenproben. Nachrichtenblatt. des Deutschen Pflanzenschutzdienstes 50: 37-45.
181. Themann, K., Werres, S., Luttmann, R., and Diener, H. A. 2002. Observations of Phytophthora spp. in water recirculation systems in commercial hardy ornamental nursery stock. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 108: 337-343.
182. Thinggaard, K., and Andersen, H. 1995. Influence of watering frequency and electrical conductivity of the nutrient solution on Phytophthora root rot in pot plants of Gerbera. Plant Dis. 79: 259-263.
183. Thinggaard, K., and Middelboe, A. L. 1989. Phytophthora and Pythium in pot plant cultures grown on ebb and flow bench with recirculating nutrient solution. J. Phytopathology 125: 343-352.
184. Thompson, D. L. 1965. Control of bacterial stalk rot of corn by chlorination of water in sprinkler irrigation. Crop Sci. 5: 369-370.
185. Thomson, S. V., and Allen, R. M. 1974. Occurrence of Phytophthora species and other potential plant pathogens in recycled irrigation water. Plant Dis. Rep. 58: 945-949.
186. Thomson, W. T. 1997. Agricultural Chemicals Book IV: Fungicides, 12th ed. Thomson Publications, Fresno, CA.
187. Thung, T. H. 1938. De Epidemiologie Van de Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae op de Tabaksondernemingen, p. 55. Mededeeling Proefstation Vorstenlandsche Tabak.
188. Tjosvold, S. A., Chambers, D. L., Davidson, J. M., and Rizzo, D. M. 2002. Incidence of Phytophthora ramorum inoculum found in streams running through areas of high incidence f sudden oak death in Santa Cruz County. In: Sudden Oak Death, A Science Symposium - The State of Our Knowledge, p. 52. Shea, P. J. and Standiford, R. B., Eds., Monterey, CA.
189. Tomlinson, J. A., and Faithfull, E. M. 1979a. Effects of fungicides and surfactants on the zoospores of Olpidium brassicae. Ann. Appl. Biol. 93: 13-19.
190. Tomlinson, J. A., and Faithfull, E. M. 1979b. The use of surfactants for the control of lettuce big vein disease. In: 1979 British Crop Protection Conference, pp. 341-345. Brighton Crop Protection Council, Brighton, UK.
191. Toppe, B., and Thinggaard, K. 1998. Prevention of Phytophthora root rot in Gerbera by increasing copper ion concentration in the nutrient solution. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 104: 359-366.
192. Tošic, M., and Tošic, D. 1984. Occurrence of tobacco mosaic virus in water of the Danube and Sava rivers. Phytopathol. Z. 110: 200-202.
193. Tsao, P. H. 1970. Selective media for isolation of pathogenic fungi. Annu. Rev. Phytopathol. 8: 157-186.
194. Tucker, C. M. 1931. Taxonomy of the Genus Phytophthora de Bary. p. 208. University of Missouri, Ag. Exp. Sta. Res. Bull. 153., Columbia, MO.
195. Tyler, B. M. 2001. Genetics and genomics of the oomycete-host interface. Trends Genetics 17: 611-614.
196. Utkhede, R. S., Levesque, C. A., and Dinh, D. 2000. Pythium aphanidermatum root rot in hydroponically grown lettuce and the effect of chemical and biological agents on its control. Can. J. Plant Pathol. 22: 138-144.
197. van der Gaag, D. J., Kerssies, A., and Lanser, C. 2001. Spread of Phytophthora root and crown rot in Saintpaulia, Gerbera and Spathiphyllum pot plants in ebb-and-flow-systems. Eur. J. Plant Pathol. 107: 535-542.
198. van Elsas, J. D., Kastelein, P., de Vries, P. M., and van Overbeek, L. S. 2001. Effects of ecological factors on the survival and physiology of Ralstonia solanacearum bv. 2 in irrigation water. Can. J. Microbiol. 47: 842-854.
199. van Kuik, A. J. 1992. Spread of Phytophthora cinnamomi Rands in a recycling system. Med.Fac. Landbouww. Univ. Gent 57: 139-143.
200. van Os, E. A., van de Braak, N. J., and Klomp, G. 1988. Heat treatment for disinfecting drainwater: Technical and economic aspects. In: 7th International Congress of Soilless Culture, pp. 353-359.
201. van Voorst, G., van Os, E. A., and Zadoks, J. C. 1987. Dispersal of Phytophthora nicotianae on tomatoes grown by nutrient film technique in a greenhouse. Neth. J. Plant Pathol. 93: 195-199.
202. van Zeijl, C. M. J., van de Kamp, E. H. M., Punt, P. J., Selten, G. C. M., Hauer, B., van Gorcom, R. F. M., and van den Hondel, C. 1998. An improved colony-PCR method for filamentous fungi for amplification of PCR-fragments of several kilobases. J. Biotechnol. 59: 221-224.
203. von Broembsen, S. L. 2002. Vertical redistribution of motile Phytophthora parasitica zoospores in water and implications for pathogen management in recycling irrigation systems. Phytopathology 92: S84.
204. von Broembsen, S. L., and Charlton, N. D. 2000. Repeated zoospore emergence by several Phytophthora spp. found in irrigation water. Phytopathology 90: S81.
205. von Broembsen, S. L., and Deacon, J. W. 1997. Calcium interference with zoospore biology and infectivity of Phytophthora parasitica in nutrient irrigation solutions. Phytopathology 87: 522-528.
206. von Broembsen, S. L., MacDonald, J. D., and Pscheidt, J. W. 2001. Disease management for nurseries using recycling irrigation systems. In: Diseases of Woody Ornamentals and Trees in Nurseries. pp. 423-432. R. K. Jones, and D. M. Benson, Eds., APS Press, St. Paul, MN.
207. von Broembsen, S. L., and Wilson, S. K. 1998. Occurrence of Phytophthora spp. in nursery runoff and recycled irrigation water. Phytopathology 90: S92.
208. Vos, P., Hogers, R., Bleeker, M., Reijans, M., van de Lee, T., Hornes, A. R., Pot, J., Peleman, J., Kuiper, M., and Zabeau, M. 1995. AFLP: a new technique for DNA fingerprinting. Nucleic Acids Res. 23: 4407-4414.
209. Wakeham, A. J., Pettitt, T. R., and White, J. G. 1997. A novel method for detection of viable zoospores of Pythium in irrigation water. Ann. Appl. Biol. 131: 427-435.
210. White, G. C. 1999. Handbook of Chlorination and Alternative Disinfectants, 4th ed. J. Wiley Interscience, New York, NY.
211. Whiteside, J. O., and Oswalt, T. W. 1973. An unusual brown rot outbreak in a Florida citrus grove following irrigation with Phytophthora-infested water. Plant Dis. Rep. 57: 391-393.
212. Wills, W. H. 1964. Phytophthora parasitica var. nicotianae spread by overhead irrigation. Plant Dis. Rep. 48: 35-36.
213. Wilson, S. K., von Broembsen, S. L., Smolen, M. D., and Andrews, M. W. 1998. Pathogen management in capture and recycle irrigation systems for nurseries. In: ASAE Annual Intl. Meeting, Paper No. 98-7004, Orlando, FL.
214. Winton, L. M., and Hansen, E. M. 2001. Molecular diagnosis of Phytophthora lateralis in trees, water, and foliage baits using multiplex ploymerase chain reaction. Forest Pathol. 31: 275-283.
215. Wohanka, W. 1992. Slow sand filtration and UV radiation: Low-cost techniques for disinfection of recirculating nutrient solution or surface water. In: 8th International Congress of Soilless Culture, p. 497, Hunter's Rest, South Africa.
216. Yamak, F., Peever, T. L., Grove, G. G., and Boal, R. J. 2002. Occurrence and identification of Phytophthora spp. pathogenic to pear fruit in irrigation water in the Wenatchee river of Washington state. Phytopathology 92: 1210-1217.
217. Yamamoto, H., Terada, T., Naganawa, T., and Tatsuyama, K. 1990. Disinfectious effect of ozonation on water infested with several root-infecting pathogens. Ann. Phytopathol. Soc. Japan 56: 250-251.
218. Yun, S. C. 2003. Control of soybean sprout rot caused by Pythium deliense in recirculated production system. Plant Pathol. J. 19: 280-283.
219. Zinnen, T. M. 1988. Assessment of plant diseases in hydroponic culture. Plant Dis. 72: 96-99.