Preventing cardiovascular outcome in patients with renal impairment: Is there a role for lipid-lowering therapy?

American Journal of Cardiovascular Drugs

Volumn 5, Issue 4, 2005, Pages 255-269

  Holdaas, Hallvard ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF OSLO   (Norway)

^b OSLO UNIVERSITY HOSPITAL   (Norway)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ATORVASTATIN; AZATHIOPRINE; CALCINEURIN INHIBITOR; CERIVASTATIN; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSPORIN A; FLUINDOSTATIN; GEMFIBROZIL; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; LIPID; LOW DENSITY LIPOPROTEIN CHOLESTEROL; MEVINOLIN; MYCOPHENOLIC ACID 2 MORPHOLINOETHYL ESTER; PRAVASTATIN; PREDNISOLONE; RAPAMYCIN; SIMVASTATIN; TACROLIMUS;

ATHEROGENESIS; CANCER; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CARDIOVASCULAR RISK; CHRONIC KIDNEY DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; DIALYSIS; DISEASE CLASSIFICATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; DRUG EFFECT; DYSLIPIDEMIA; HEART DEATH; HEART INFARCTION; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERCHOLESTEROLEMIA; HYPERINSULINEMIA; INSULIN RESISTANCE; KIDNEY FUNCTION; KIDNEY GRAFT; NONHUMAN; OBESITY; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUALITATIVE ANALYSIS; QUANTITATIVE ANALYSIS; REVIEW; RHABDOMYOLYSIS; RISK ASSESSMENT; RISK FACTOR;

ANTILIPEMIC AGENTS; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; HUMANS; KIDNEY DISEASES; KIDNEY FAILURE, CHRONIC; KIDNEY TRANSPLANTATION; RENAL DIALYSIS;

EID: 22244483784     PISSN: 11753277     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2165/00129784-200505040-00005     Document Type: Review

References (184)

1. Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study Group. Randomised trial of cholesterol lowering in 4444 patients with coronary heart disease: the Scandinavian Simvastatin Survival Study (4S). Lancet 1994; 344: 1383-9
2. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia: the West of Scotland Coronary Prevention Study Group. N Engl J Med 1995; 333: 1301-7
3. Sacks FM, Pfeffer MA, Moye LA, et al. The effect of pravastatin on coronary events after myocardial infarction in patients with average cholesterol levels: the Cholesterol and Recurrent Events Trial Investigators. N Engl J Med 1996; 335: 1001-9
4. Downs JR, Clearfield M, Weis S, et al. Primary prevention of acute coronary events with lovastatin in men and women with average cholesterol levels: results of AFCAPS/TexCAPS. Air Force/Texas Coronary Atherosclerosis Prethat vention Study. JAMA 1998; 279: 1615-22
5. Long-term Intervention with Pravastatin in Ischaemic Disease (LIPID) Study Group. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol levels. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1349-57
6. Serruys PWJC, de Feyter P, Macaya C, et al. Fluvastatin for prevention of cardiac events following successful first percutaneous coronary intervention: a randomized controlled trial. JAMA 2002; 287: 3215-22
7. Heart Protection Study Collaborative Group. MRC/BHF Heart Protection Study of cholesterol lowering with simvastatin in 20,536 high-risk individuals: a randomised placebo-controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 7-22
8. Shepherd J, Blauw GJ, Murphy MB, et al. Pravastatin in elderly individuals at risk of vascular disease (PROSPER): a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2002; 360: 1623-30
9. Sever PS, Dahløf B, Poulter NR, et al. Prevention of coronary and stroke events with atorvastatin in hypertensive patients who have average or lower-than-average cholesterol concentrations, in the Anglo-Scandinavian cardiac outcomes trial-lipid lowering arm (ASCOT-LLA): a multicentre randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 361: 1149-58
10. Holdaas H, Fellström B, Jardine AG, et al. Effect of fluvastatin on cardiac outcomes in renal transplant recipients: a multicentre, randomized, placebo controlled trial. Lancet 2003; 14: 2024-31
11. Jardine AG, Holdaas H, Fellström B, et al. Fluvastatin prevents cardiac death and myocardial infarction in renal transplant recipients: post-hoc subgroup analyses of the ALERT Study. Am J Transplant 2004 Jun; 4 (6): 988-95
12. Fellström B, Holdaas H, Jardine AG, et al. Effect of fluvastatin on renal endpoints in the Assessment of LEscol in Renal Transplant (ALERT) trial. Kidney Int 2004 Oct; 66 (4): 1549-55
13. Tonelli M, Sacks FM, Kiberd B, et al. Pravastatin for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in persons with mild chronic renal insufficiency. Ann Intern Med 2003; 138: 98-104
14. Tonelli M, Isles C, Curhan GC, et al. Effect of pravastatin on cardiovascular events in people with chronic disease. Circulation 2004; 110: 1557-63
15. Tonelli M, Collins D, Robins S, et al. Gemfibrozil for secondary prevention of cardiovascular events in mild to moderate chronic renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 2004; 66: 1123-30
16. Wanner C, Krane V, Ruf G, et al. Rationale and design of a trial improving outcome of type 2 diabetics on hemodialysis. Kidney Int 1999; 56 Suppl. 71: S222-6
17. Wanner C. Results of a randomized controlled trial with atorvastatin in dialysed diabetic patients (4D) [oral presentation]. 37th Annual Meeting and Scientific Exposition of the American Society of Nephrology; 2004 Oct 27-Nov 1; St Louis (MO)
18. Fellström B, Holdaas H, Jardine AG. Why do we need a statin trial in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2003; 63 Suppl. 84: S204-6
19. Baigent C, Landry M. Study of heart and renal protection (SHARP). Kidney Int 2003; 65 Suppl. 84: S207-10
20. K/DOQI clinical practical guidelines for managing dyslipidemias in chronic disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 41 Suppl. 3: S1-S99
21. Executive summary of the third report of the National Cholesterol Education Program (NCEP) expert panel on Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults (Adult Treatment Panel III): Expert Panel on Detection, Evaluation and Treatment of High Blood Cholesterol in Adults. JAMA 2001; 285: 2486-97
22. Wood D, de Backer G, Faergeman O, et al. Prevention of coronary heart disease in clinical practice: recommendations of the Second Joint Task Force of European and Other Societies on Coronary Prevention. Eur Heart J 1998; 19: 1434-503
23. Levey AS. National Kidney Foundation K/DOQI clinical practice guidelines for chronic disease: evaluation, classification and stratification. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39 (2 Suppl. 1): S1-266
24. Grützmacher P, Märtz W, Peschke B, et al. Lipoproteins and apolipoproteins during the progression of chronic renal disease. Nephron 1988; 50: 103-11
25. Kasiske BL. Hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32 Suppl. 5: S142-56
26. Bianchi C, Bigazzi R, Campese VM. Microalbuminuria in essential hypertension: significance, pathophysiology, and therapeutic implications. Am J Kidney Dis 1999; 34: 973-95
27. Warwick GL, Packard CJ. Lipoprotein metabolism in the nephrotic syndrome. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1993; 8: 385-96
28. De Sain-van der Velden MG, Kaysen GA, Barrett HA, et al. Increased VLDL in nephrotic patients results from a decreased catabolism while increased LDL results from increased synthesis. Kidney Int 1998; 53: 994-1001
29. Gordon DJ, Probstfield JL, Garrison RJ, et al. High-density lipoprotein cholesterol and cardiovascular disease: four prospective American studies. Circulation 1989; 79: 8-15
30. Sechi LA, Zingaro L, De Carli S, et al. Increased serum lipoprotein (a) levels in patients with early renal failure. Ann Intern Med 1998; 129: 457-61
31. Samuelsson O, Attman P-O, Knight-Gibson C, et al. Lipoprotein abnormalities without hyperlipidemia in moderate renal insufficiency. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1994; 9: 1580-5
32. Shulman NB, Ford CE, Hall WD, et al. Prognostic value of serum creatinine and effect of treatment of hypertension on renal function: results from the hypertension detection and follow-up program. The Hypertension Detection and Followcomes up Program Cooperative Group. Hypertension 1989; 13 (5 Suppl.): I80-93
33. Baigent C, Burbury K, Wheeler D. Premature cardiovascular disease in chronic renal failure. Lancet 2000; 356: 145-52
34. Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Pogue J, et al. Renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and the impact of ramipril: the HOPE randomised trial. Ann Intern Med 2001; 134: 629-36
35. Ruilope LM, Salvetti A, Jamerson K, et al. Renal function and intensive lowering of blood pressure in hypertensive participants of the Hypertension Optimal Treatment (HOT) study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12: 218-25
36. Fried LF, Shlipak MG, Crump C, et al. Mild renal insufficiency as a predictor of cardiovascular outcomes and all-cause mortality in elderly individuals. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 1364-72
37. Hillege HL, Fidler V, Diercks GF, et al. Urinary albumin excretion predicts cardiovascular and non-cardiovascular mortality in the general population. Circulation 2002; 106: 1077-82
38. Manjunath G, Tighiouart H, Levey AS, et al. Level of kidney function as a risk factor for atherosclerotic cardiovascular outcomes in the community. J Am Coll Cardiol 2003; 41: 47-55
39. Mann JF, Gerstein HC, Dulau-Florea I, et al. Cardiovascular risk in patients with mild renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 2003; 63 Suppl. 84: S192-96
40. Shklipak MG, Stehman-Breen C, Vittinghoff E, et al. Creatinine levels and cardiovascular events in women with heart disease: do small changes matter? Am J Kidney Dis 2004; 43: 37-44
41. Go AS, Chertow GM, Fan D, et al. Chronic kidney disease and the risks of death, cardiovascular events, and hospitalization. NEJM 2004; 351: 1296-305
42. Ordoñez JD, Hiatt RA, Killebrew EJ, et al. The increased risk of coronary heart disease associated with nephrotic syndrome. Kidney Int 1993; 44: 638-42
43. Coresh J, Wei G, Mcquillan G, et al. Prevalence of high blood pressure and elevated serum creatinine level in the United States. Arch Intern Med 2001; 161: 1207-16
44. Culleton BF, Larson MG, Wilson PW, et al. Cardiovascular disease and mortality in a community-based cohort with mild renal insufficiency. Kidney Int 1999; 56: 2214-9
45. Garg AX, Clark WF, Haynes RB, et al. Moderate renal insufficiency and the risk of cardiovascular mortality: results from the NHANES I. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 1486-94
46. Anderson JW, Randles KM, Kendall CW, et al. Carbohydrate and fibre recommendations for individuals with diabetes: a quantitative assessment and metaclinical analysis of the evidence. J Am Coll Nutr 2004; 23: 5-17
47. Tonstad S, Holdaas H, Gørbitz C, et al. Is dietary intervention effective in post-transplant hyperlipidemia? Nephrol Dial Transplant 1995; 10: 82-5
48. Clinical practice guidelines for nutrition in chronic renal failure: K/DOQI, National Kidney Foundation [published erratum appears in Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 38 (4): 917]. Am J Kidney Dis 2000 35 (6 Suppl. 2): S1-140
49. Halstenson CE, Triscari J, DeVault A, et al. Single-dose pharmacokinetics of pravastatin and metabolites in patients with renal impairment. J Clin Pharmacol 1992; 32: 124-32
50. Stern RH, Yang BB, Horton M, et al. Renal dysfunction does not alter the pharmacokinetics or LDL cholesterol reduction of atorvastatin. J Clin Pharmacol 1997; 37: 816-9
51. Ballantyne CM, Corsini A, Davidson MH, et al. Risk for myopathy with statin therapy in high-risk patients. Arch Intern Med 2003; 163: 553-64
52. 14C-lovastatin in chronic renal failure. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1991; 50: 437-41
53. Cockroft DW, Gault MH. Prediction of creatinine clearance from serum creatinine. Nephron 1976; 16: 31-41
54. Levey AS, Bosch JP, Lewis JB, et al. A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study Group. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 461-70
55. Fathi R, Isbel N, Short L, et al. The effect of long-term aggressive lipid lowering on ischemic and atherosclerotic burden in patients with chronic kidney disease. Am J Kidney Dis 2004; 43: 45-52
56. Dieplinger H, Schoenfeld PY, Fielding J. Plasma cholesterol metabolism in end-stage renal disease: difference between treatment by hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis. J Clin Invest 1986; 77: 1071-83
57. Parra HJ, Cachera C, Equagoo K, et al. Quantitative abnormalities of lipoprotein particles in chronic hemodialysis patients. Adv Exp Med Biol 1988; 243: 283-7
58. Appel GA. Lipid abnormalities in renal disease. Kidney Int 1991; 39: 169-83
59. Sent M, Romero R, Pedro-Botet J, et al. Lipoprotein abnormalities in hyper-lipidemic and normolipidemic men on hemodialysis with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1992; 41: 1394-9
60. Hernandez E, Praga M, Alamo C, et al. Lipoprotein(a) and vascular access survival in patients on chronic hemodialysis. Nephron 1996; 72: 145-9
61. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Intermediate-density lipoprotein as an independent risk factor for aortic atherosclerosis in hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998; 9: 1277-84
62. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Atherogenic lipoprotein changes in the absence of hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal failure treated with haemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 1997; 131: 229-36
63. Magii E, Bellazzi R, Falschi F, et al. Enhanced LDL oxidation in uremic patients: an additional mechanism for accelerated atherosclerosis. Kidney Int 1994; 45: 876-83
64. Kronenberg F, Neyer U, Lhotta K, et al. The low molecular weight apo(a) phenotype is an independent predictor for coronary artery disease in hemodialysis patients: a prospective follow-up. J Am Soc Nephrol 1999; 10: 1027-36
65. Prichard SS. Impact of dyslipidemia in end-stage renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14 Suppl. 4: S315-20
66. Kronenberg F, Lingenhel A, Neyer U, et al. Prevalence of dyslipidemic risk factors in hemodialysis and CAPD patients. Kidney Int 2003; 63 Suppl. 84: S113-16
67. Shoji T, Nishizawa Y, Kawagishi T, et al. Atherogenic lipoprotein changes in the absence of hyperlipidemia in patients with chronic renal failure treated by hemodialysis. Atherosclerosis 1997; 131: 229-36
68. Hodis H, Mack W, Dunn M, et al. Intermediate-density lipoproteins and progression of carotid arterial wall intima-media thickness. Circulation 1997; 95: 2022-6
69. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Clinical epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. Am J Kidney Dis 1998; 32 (5 Suppl. 3): S112-19
70. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Sarnak MJ. Epidemiology of cardiovascular disease in chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998; 9 (12 Suppl.): S16-23
71. US Renal Data System. Annual data report. Bethesda: National Institute of Health. Natl Inst Diabetes Digestive Kidney Dis, 1999 Apr: 73-88
72. Foley RN, Parfrey PS, Harnett JD, et al. Clinical and echocardiographic disease in patients starting end-stage renal disease therapy. Kidney Int 1995; 47: 186-92
73. Shoji T, Emoto M, Tabata T, et al. Advanced atherosclerosis in predialysis patients with chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 2187-92
74. Cressman MD, Heyka RJ, Paganini EP, et al. Lipoprotein(a) is an independent risk factor for cardiovascular disease in hemodialysis patients. Circulation 1992; 86: 475-82
75. Zimmermann J, Herrlinger S, Pruy A, et al. Inflammation enhances cardiovascular risk and mortality in hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 1999; 55: 648-58
76. Cheung AK, Sarnak MJ, Yan G, et al. Atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease risks in chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2000; 58: 353-62
77. Fujisawa M, Haramaki R, Miyazaki H, et al. Role of lipoprotein (a) and TGF-beta 1 in atherosclerosis of hemodialysis patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11: 1889-95
78. Stack AG, Bloembergen WE. Prevalence and clinical correlates of coronary artery disease among new dialysis patients in the United States: a cross-sectional study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12: 1516-23
79. Degoulet P, Legrain M, Reach I, et al. Mortality risk factors in patients treated by chronic haemodialysis: report on the Diaphane Collaborative Study. Nephron 1982; 31: 103-10
80. Lowrie EG, Lew NL. Death risk in hemodialysis patients: the predictive value of commonly measured variables and an evaluation of death rate differences between facilities. Am J Kidney Dis 1990; 15: 458-82
81. Lowrie EG, Lew NL. Commonly measured laboratory variables in hemodialysis patients: relationships among them and to death risk. Semin Nephrol 1992; 12: 276-83
82. Liu Y, Coresh J, Eustace JA, et al. Association between cholesterol level and mortality in dialysis patients: role of inflammation and malnutrition. JAMA 2004; 291: 451-9
83. Stenvinkel P, Heimburger O, Paultre F, et al. Strong association between malnutrition, inflammation and atherosclerosis in chronic renal failure. Kidney Int 1999; 55: 1899-911
84. Iseki K, Yamazato M, Tozawa M, et al. Hypocholesterolemia is a significant predictor of death in a cohort of chronic hemodialysis patients. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 1887-93
85. Longenecker JC, Coresh J, Powe NR, et al. Traditional cardiovascular disease risk factors in dialysis patients compared with the general population: the CHOICE study. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 1918-7
86. Olivares J, Cruz C, Gas JM, et al. Evolution of lipid profiles in long-term peritoneal dialysis. Adv Perit Dial 1992; 8: 373-5
87. Webb AT, Brown EA. Prevalence of symptomatic arterial disease and risk factors for its development in patients on continuous ambulatory peritoneal dialysis. Perit Dial Int 1993; 13: S406-8
88. Wanner C, Hörl WH, Luley CH, et al. Effects of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors in hypercholesterolemic patients on hemodialysis. Kidney Int 1991; 39: 754-60
89. Nishizawa Y, Shoji T, Emoto M, et al. Reduction of intermediate density lipoprotein in by pravastatin in hemo- and peritoneal dialysis patients. Clin Nephrol 1995; 43: 268-72
90. Robson R, Collins J, Johnson R, et al. Effects of simvastatin and enalapril on serum lipoprotein concentrations and left ventricular mass in patients on dialysis: the Perfect Study Collaborative Group. J Nephrol 1997; 10: 33-40
91. Saltissi D, Morgan C, Rigby RJ, et al. Safety and efficacy of simvastatin in hypercholesterolemic patients undergoing chronic renal dialysis. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 39: 283-90
92. Harris KPG, Wheeler DC, Chong CC, et al. A placebo-controlled trial examining atorvastatin in dyslipidemia patients undergoing CAPD: the Atorvastin in CAPD study Investigators. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 1469-74
93. Seliger SL, Weiss NS, Gillen DL, et al. HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors are associated with reduced mortality in ESRD patients. Kidney Int 2002; 61: 297-304
94. Keane WF, Brenner BM, Mazzu A, et al. The CHORUS (Cerivastatin in heart outcomes in renal disease: understanding survival) protocol: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial in patients with ESRD. Am J Kidney Dis 2001; 37 Suppl. 2: S48-53
95. Bittar AE, Ratcliffe PJ, Richardsson AJ, et al. The prevalence of hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1990; 50: 987-92
96. Drüeke TB, Abdulmassih Z, Lacour B, et al. Atherosclerosis and lipid disorders after renal transplantation. Kidney Int 1991; 39 Suppl. 31: S24-8
97. Gonyea JE, Anderson CF. Weight change and serum lipoproteins in recipients of renal allografts. Mayo Clin Proc 1992; 67: 653-7
98. Moore R, Thomas D, Morgan E, et al. Abnormal lipid and lipoprotein profiles following renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 1993; 25: 1060-1
99. Segoloni GP, Triolo G, Cassader M, et al. Dyslipidemia in renal transplantation: a 3-year follow-up. Transpl Proc 1993; 25: 2178-9
100. Dimeny E, Wahlberg J, Lithell H, et al. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplantation: risk factor for long-term outcome. Eur J Clin Invest 1995; 25: 574-83
101. Aakhus S, Dahl K, Widerøe TE. Hyperlipidaemia in renal transplant patients. J Intern Med 1996; 239: 407-15
102. Brown JH, Murphy BG, Douglas AF, et al. Influence of immunosuppressive therapy on lipoprotein(a) and other lipoproteins following renal transplantation. Nephron 1997; 75: 277-82
103. Vathsala A, Weinberg RB, Schoenberg L, et al. Lipid abnormalities in cyclosporine-prednisolone-treated renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1989; 48: 37-43
104. Rao VK. Posttransplant medical complications. Surg Clin North Am 1998; 78: 113-32
105. Coresh J, Longenecker JC, Miller ER, et al. Epidemiology of cardiovascular risk factors in chronic renal disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 1998; 9: S24-30
106. Hillbrands LB, Demacker PNM, Hoitsma AJ, et al. The effects of cyclosporine and prednisone on serum lipid and (apo)lipoprotein levels in renal transplant recipients. J Am Soc Nephrol 1995; 5: 2073-81
107. Jung K, Scheifler A, Blank W, et al. Changed composition of high-density lipoprotein subclasses HDL2 and HDL3 after renal transplantation. Transplantation 1988; 46: 407-9
108. Kasiske BL, Umen AJ. Persistent hyperlipidemia in renal transplant patients. Medicine (Baltimore) 1987; 66: 309-16
109. Divakar D, Bailey RR, Frampton CM, et al. Hyperlipidemia in stable renal transplant recipients. Nephron 1991; 59: 423-8
110. Ghanem H, van den Dorpel M, Weimar W, et al. Increased low density lipoprotein oxidation in stable kidney transplant recipients. Kidney Int 1996; 49: 488-93
111. Fellström B. Impact and management of hyperlipidemia post transplantation. Transplantation 2000; 70: S51-7
112. Fernadez-Fresnedo G, Escallada R, Rodrigo E, et al. The risk of cardiovascular disease associated with proteinuria in renal transplant patients. Transplantation 2002; 73: 1345-8
113. Burrell DE, Antignani A, Goldwasser P, et al. Lipid abnormalities in black renal patients. N Y State J Med 1991; 91: 192-6
114. Kasiske BL. Risk factors for cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. Miner Electrolyte Metab 1993; 19: 186-95
115. Kasiske BL, Guijarro C, Massy ZA, et al. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 1996; 7: 158-65
116. Ponticelli C, Barbi GL, Cantaluppi A, et al. Lipid disorders in renal transplant recipients. Nephron 1978; 20: 189-95
117. Cattran DC, Steiner G, Wilson DR, et al. Hyperlipidemia after renal transplantation: natural history and pathophysiology. Ann Intern Med 1997; 91: 554-9
118. López-Miranda J, Pérez-Jiménez F, Torres A, et al. Effect of cyclosporine on plasma lipoproteins in bone marrow transplantation patients. Clin Biochem 1992; 25: 379-86
119. Jardine AG, et al. Assessing the relative risk of cardiovascular disease among renal transplant patients receiving tacrolimus or cyclosporine. Transplant Int 2005; 18: 379-84
120. Kasiske BL, Tortorice KL, Heim-Duthoy KL, et al. The adverse impact of cyclosporine on serum lipids in renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 1991; 17: 700-7
121. Ligtenberg G, Hene RJ, Blankestijn PJ, et al. Cardiovascular risk factors in renal transplant patients: cyclosporin A versus Tacrolimus. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12: 368-73
122. Kuster GM, Drexel H, Bleisch JA, et al. Relation of cyclosporine blood levels to adverse effects on lipoproteins. Transplantation 1994; 57: 1479-83
123. Johnson C, Ahsan N, Gonwa T, et al. Randomized trial of tacrolimus (Prograf) in combination with azathioprine or mycophenolate mofetil versus cyclosporine (Neoral) with mycophenolate mofetil after cadaveric kidney transplantation. Transplantation 2000; 69: 834-41
124. Vela CG, Cristol B, Descomps B, et al. Prospective study of lipid disorders in FK506-versus cyclosporine-treated renal transplant patients. Transplant Proc 2000; 32 (2): 398
125. McCune TR, Thacker LR, Peters TG, et al. Effects of tacrolimus on hyperlipidemia after successful renal transplantation: a Southeastern organ procurement foundation multicenter clinical study. Transplantation 1998; 65: 87-92
126. Pratschke J, Neuhaus P, Tullius SG, et al. Treatment of cyclosporine-related adverse effects by conversion to tacrolimus after liver transplantation: longoutcome term results. Transplant Proc 1998; 30: 1419-21
127. Neumayer H-H, Paradis K, Korn A, et al. Entry-into-human study with the novel immunosuppressant SDZ RAD in stable renal transplant recipients. Br J Clin Pharmacol 1999; 48: 694-703
128. Massy ZA, De Bandt JP, Morelon E, et al. Hyperlipidaemia and post-heparin lipase activities in renal transplant recipients treated with sirolimus or cyclosporine A [letter]. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2000; 15: 928
129. Groth CG, Backman L, Morales JM, et al. Sirolimus (rapamycin)-based therapy in human renal transplantation: similar efficacy and different toxicity compared with cyclosporine. Transplantation 1999; 67: 1036-42
130. Blum B. Effects of sirolimus on lipids in renal allograft recipients: an analysis using the Framingham risk model. Am J Transplant 2002; 2: 551-9
131. Stegall MD, Wachs ME, Everson G, et al. Prednisone withdrawal 14 days after liver transplantation with mycophenolate: a prospective trial of cyclosporine and tacrolimus. Transplantation 1997; 64: 1755-60
132. Ducloux D, Fournier V, Bresson-Vautrin C, et al. Mycophenolate mofetil in renal tranpsplant recipients with cyclosporine-associated nephrotoxicity: a preliminary report. Transplantation 1998; 65: 1504-6
133. Briggs JD. Causes of death after renal transplantation. Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 1545-9
134. Brunner FP, Broyer M, Brynger H, et al. Survival on renal replacement therapy: data from the EDTA registry. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1988; 2: 109-22
135. Lindholm A, Albrechtsen D, Frödin L, et al. Ischemic heart disease: a major cause of death and graft loss after renal transplantation in Scandinavia. Transplantation 1995; 60: 451-7
136. Madsen M, Jespersen B, Lokkegaard H, et al. Kidney transplantation activity and outcome in Denmark 1990-1999. Clin Transpl 2000; 14: 357-8
137. Ojo AO, Hanson JA, Wolfe RA, et al. Long-term survival in renal transplant recipients with graft function. Kidney Int 2000; 57: 307-13
138. Aakhus S, Dahl K, Widerøe TE. Cardiovascular morbidity and risk factors in renal transplant patients. Nephrol Dial Transplant 1999; 14: 648-54
139. Pirsch JD, Voss BJ, Roecker EB, et al. Predictive factors for immunologic graft failure in cadaver renal transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1991; 23: 1282-3
140. Gill JS, Abichandani R, Kausz AT, et al. Mortality after kidney transplant failure: the impact of non-immunologic factors. Kidney Int 2002; 62: 1875-83
141. Meier-Kriesche H-U, Ojo AO, Port FK, et al. Survival improvement among patients with end-stage disease: trends over time for transplant recipients and wait-listed patients. J Am Soc Nephrol 2001; 12: 1293-6
142. Shaubel DE, Jeffery JR, Mao Y, et al. Trend in mortality and graft failure for renal transplant patients. CMAJ 2002; 167: 137-42
143. Djamali A, Kendziorski C, Brazy PC, et al. Disease progression and outcomes in chronic kidney disease and renal transplantation. Kidney Int 2003; 64: 1800-7
144. Abbot KC, Bucci JR, Cruess D, et al. Graft loss and acute coronary syndromes after renal transplantation in the United States. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 2560-9
145. Abbot KC, Yuan CM, Taylor AJ, et al. Early renal insufficiency and hospitalized heart disease after renal transplantation in the era of modern immunosuppression. J Am Soc Nephrol 2003; 14: 2358-65
146. Kasiske BL, Chakkera HA, Roel J. Explained and unexplained ischemic heart disease risk after renal transplantation. J Am Soc Nephrol 2000; 11: 1735-42
147. Kasiske BL. Cardiovascular disease after renal transplantation. Semin Nephrol 2000; 20: 176-87
148. Ong CS, Pollock CA, Caterson RJ, et al. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant recipients: natural history and response to treatment. Medicine 1994; 73: 215-23
149. Pollock CA, Mahony JF, Ong CS, et al. Hyperlipidemia in renal transplant patients: does it matter and can we treat it. Transplant Proc 1995; 27: 2152-3
150. Bumgardner GL, Wilson GA, Tso PL, et al. Impact of serum lipids on long-term graft and patient survival after renal transplantation. Transplantation 1995; 60: 1418-21
151. Hillebrand GF, Schlosser S, Schneeberger H, et al. No clinical evidence of hyperlipidemia as a risk factor for chronic renal allograft failure. Transplant Proc 1999; 31: 1391-2
152. Aker S, Ivens K, Guo Z, et al. Cardiovascular complications after renal transplantation. Transplant Proc 1998; 30: 2039-42
153. Roodnat JI, Mulder PGH, Zietse R, et al. Cholesterol as an independent predictor of longoutcome after renal transplantation. Transplantation 2000; 69: 1704-10
154. Holdaas H, Fellström B, Holme I, et al. Effects of fluvastatin on cardiac events in renal transplant patients: ALERT (Assessment of Lescol in renal transplantation) study design and baseline data. J Cardiovasc Risk 2001; 8: 63-71
155. Woo YM, McLean D, Kavanagh D, et al. The influence of pre-operative electrocardiographic abnormalities and cardiovascular risk factors on patient and graft survival following renal transplantation. J Nephrol 2002; 15: 380-6
156. Rigatto C, Parfey P, Foley R, et al. Congestive heart failure in renal transplant recipients: risk factors, outcomes, and relationship with ischemic heart disease. J Am Soc Nephrol 2002; 13: 1084-90
157. Painter PL, Hector L, Ray K, et al. Effects of exercise training on coronary heart disease risk factors in renal transplant recipients. Am J Kidney Dis 2003; 42: 362-9
158. Massy ZA, Ma JZ, Louis TA, et al. Lipid-lowering therapy in patients with renal disease. Kidney Int 1995; 48: 188-98
159. Keogh A, Day R, Critchley L, et al. The effect of food and cholestyramine on the absorption of cyclosporine in cardiac transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1988; 20: 27-30
160. Lal SM, Hewett JE, Petroski GF, et al. Effects of nicotinic acid and lovastatin in renal transplant patients: a prospective, randomized, open-labelled crossover trial. Am J Kidney Dis 1995; 25: 616-22
161. Kobashigawa JA, Murphy FL, Stevenson LW, et al. Low-dose lovastatin safely lowers cholesterol after cardiac transplantation. Circulation 1990; 82 Suppl. 5: IV281-IV83
162. Yoshimura N, Oka T, Okamoto M, et al. The effects of pravastatin on hyperin lipidaemia in renal transplant recipients. Transplantation 1992; 53: 94-9
163. Holdaas H, Hartmann A, Stenstrøm J, et al. Effect of fluvastatin for safely lowering atherogenic lipids in renal transplant patients receiving cyclosporine. Am J Cardiol 1995; 76: 102A-6A
164. Rehman MA, al-Sulaiman M, Mousa DH, et al. Effects of simvastatin in hyper-lipidemic renal transplant patients receiving cyclosporine. Transplantation 1995; 60: 397-9
165. Gullestad L, Nordal KP, Berg KJ, et al. Interaction between lovastatin and cyclosporine A after heart and kidney transplantation. Transplant Proc 1999; 31: 2163-5
166. Jardine AG, Holdaas H. Fluvastatin in combination with cyclosporine in renal transplant recipients: a review of clinical and safety experience. J Clin Pharm Ther 1999; 24: 397-408
167. Mück W, Mai I, Fritsche L, et al. Increase in cerivastatin systemic exposure after single and multiple dosing in cyclosporine-treated kidney transplant recipients. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1999; 65: 251-61
168. Åsberg A, Hartmann H, Bergan S, et al. Bilateral pharmacokinetics interaction between cyclosporine A and atorvastatin in renal transplant recipients. Am J Transplant 2001; 1: 382-6
169. Holdaas H, Jardine AG, Wheeler DC, et al. Effect of fluvastatin on acute renal allograft rejection: a randomized multicentre trial. Kidney Int 2001; 60: 1990-7
170. Olbricht C, Wanner C, Eisenhauer T, et al. Accumulation of lovastatin, but not pravastatin, in the blood of cyclosporine-treated kidney graft patients after multiple doses. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1997; 62: 311-21
171. Regazzi MB, Iacona I, Campana C, et al. Altered disposition of pravastatin following concomitant drug therapy with cyclosporine A in transplant recipients. Transplant Proc 1993; 25: 2732-4
172. Arnadottir M, Eriksson LO, Thysell H, et al. Plasma concentration profiles of simvastatin 3-hydroxy-3-methyl-glutaryl-coenzyme A reductase inhibitory activity in kidney transplant recipients with and without ciclosporin. Nephron 1993; 65: 410-3
173. Goldberg R, Roth D. Evaluation of fluvastatin in the treatment of hypercholesterolemia in renal transplant recipients taking cyclosporine. Transplantation 1996; 62: 1559-64
174. Corpier CL, Jones PH, Suki WN, et al. Rhabdomyolysis and renal injury with lovastatin use: report of two cases in cardiac transplant recipients. JAMA 1988; 260: 239-41
175. Rodriguez JA, Crespo-Leiro MG, Paniagua MJ, et al. Rhabdomyolysis in heart transplant patients on HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors and cyclosporine. Transplant Proc 1999; 31: 2522-3
176. Kusus M, Stapleton DD, Lertora JJ, et al. Rhabdomyolysis and acute renal failure hyperin a cardiac transplant recipient due to multiple drug interactions. Am J Med Sci 2000; 320: 394-7
177. Stirling CM, Isles CG. Rhabdomyolysis due to simvastatin in a transplant patient: are some statins safer than others? Nephrol Dial Transplant 2001; 16: 873-4
178. Maltz HC, Balog DL, Cheigh JS. Rhabdomyolysis associated with concomitant use of atorvastatin and cyclosporine. Ann Pharmacother 1999; 33: 1176-9
179. Rodriguez ML, Mora C, Navarro JF. Cerivastatin-induced rhabdomyolysis [letter]. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 598
180. East C, Alivizatos PA, Grundy SM, et al. Rhabdomyolysis in patients receiving lovastatin after cardiac transplantation [letter]. N Engl J Med 1988; 318: 47-8
181. Holdaas H, Julien D. The use of statins after solid organ transplantation [letter]. Neprol Dial Transplant 2002; 17: 1537
182. Cosio FG, Pesavento TE, Pelletier RP, et al. Patients survival after renal transplantation: III. The effects of statin. Am J Kidney Dis 2002; 40: 638-43
183. Kyllonen L, Salmela K, Pukkala E. Cancer incidence in a kidney-transplanted population. Transpl Int 2000; 13 Suppl. 1: S394-8
184. Patel R, Paya CV. Infections in solid-organ transplant recipients. Clin Microbiol Rev 1997; 10: 86-124