Gene flow in forest trees: How far do genes really travel?

Forest Genetics

Volumn 11, Issue 3-4, 2004, Pages 179-192

  Burczyk, J ^a   DiFazio, S P ^b   Adams, W T ^c  

^a KAZIMIERZ WIELKI UNIVERSITY   (Poland)

^b OAK RIDGE NATIONAL LABORATORY   (United States)

^c OREGON STATE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 21244451417     PISSN: 1335048X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (117)

1. ADAMS, W.T. 1992: Gene dispersal within forest tree populations. New Forests 6:217-240.
2. ADAMS, W.T. & BIRKES, D.S. 1989: Mating patterns in seed orchards. In: Proceedings of the 20th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference, pp. 75-86, Charleston.
3. ADAMS, W.T. & BIRKES, D.S. 1991: Estimating mating patterns in forest tree populations. In: Biochemical Markers in the Population Genetics of Forest Trees (eds. Fineschi, S., Malvolti, M. E., Cannata, F. & Hattemer, H.H.), pp. 157-172, SPB Academic Publishing, The Hague, The Netherlands.
4. ADAMS, W.T. & BURCZYK, J. 2000: Magnitude and implications of gene flow in gene conservation reserves. In: Forest Conservation Genetics: Principles and Practice (eds. Young, A., Boshier, D. & Boyle, T.), pp. 215-224, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
5. ADAMS, W.T., HIPKINS, V.D., BURCZYK, J. & RANDALL, W.K. 1997: Pollen contamination trends in a maturing Douglas-fir seed orchards. Can. J. For. Res. 27: 131-134.
6. ANDOW, D., KAREIVA, P., LEVIN, S.A. & OKUBO, A. 1990: Spread of invading organisms. Landsc. Ecol. 4: 177-188.
7. BATEMAN, A.J. 1947: Contamination of seed crops II. Wind pollination. Heredity 1: 235-246.
8. BERGELSON, J., NEWMAN, J.A. & FLORESROUX, E.M. 1993: Rates of weed spread in spatially heterogeneous environments. Ecology 74: 999-1011.
9. BOSHIER, D.H., CHASE, M.R. & BAWA, K.S. 1995: Population genetics of Cordia alliodora (Boraginaceae), a neotropical tree. 3. Gene flow, neighborhood, and population structure. Am. J. Bot. 82: 484-490.
10. BOSSART, J.L. & PROWELL, D.P. 1998: Genetic estimates of population structure and gene flow: limitations, lessons, and new directions. Trends in Ecol. Evol. 13: 202-206.
11. BRAMLETT, D.L. 1981: Effectiveness of wind pollination in seed orchards. In: Pollen Management Handbook (ed. Franklin, E. C.), pp. 10-14, USDA Forest Service, Agric. Handbook 587.
12. BUITEVELD, J., BAKKER, E.G., BOVENSCHEN, J. & VRIES DE, S.M.G. 2001: Paternity analysis in a seed orchard of Quercus robur L. and estimation of the amount of background pollination using microsatellite markers. For. Genet. 8: 331-337.
13. BURCZYK, J., ADAMS, W.T. & SHIMIZU, J.Y. 1996: Mating patterns and pollen dispersal in a natural knobcone pine (Pinus attenuata Lemmon) stand. Heredity 77: 251-260.
14. BURCZYK, J., ADAMS, W.T., MORAN, G.F. & GRIFFIN, A.R. 2002: Complex patterns of mating revealed in a Eucalyptus regnans seed orchard using allozyme markers and the neighborhood model. Mol. Ecol. 11: 2379-239 1.
15. CAIN, M.L., MILLIGAN, B.G. & STRAND, A.E. 2000: Long-distance seed dispersal in plant populations. Am. J. Bot. 87: 1217-1227.
16. CHASE, M., KESSELI, R. & BAWA, K. 1996: Microsatellite markers for population and conservation genetics of tropical trees. Am. J. Bot. 83: 51-57.
17. CHARNOV, E. L. 1982: The Theory of Sex Allocation. Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J.
18. CLARK, J. S., FASTIE, C., HURTT, G., JACKSON, S. T., JOHNSON, C., KING, G.A., LEWIS, M., LYNCH, J., PACALA, S., PRENTICE, C., SCHUPP, E.W., WEBB, T.I. & WYCKOFF, P. 1998: Reid's paradox of rapid plant migration: dispersal theory and interpretation of palaeoecological records. BioScience 48:13-24.
19. CONDIT, R., PITMAN, N., LEIGH, E. G. JR., CHAVE, J., TERBORGH, J., FOSTER, R. B., NUNEZ, P., AGUILAR, S., VALENCIA, R., VILLA, G., MULLER-LANDAU, H. C., LOSOS, E. & HUBBELL, S. P. 2002: Beta-Diversity in Tropical Forest Trees. Science 295: 666-669.
20. CONNELL, J.H. & SLATYER, R.O. 1977: Mechanisms of selection in natural communities and their role in community stability and organization. Am. Natur. 111: 1119-1144.
21. DEVLIN, B. & ELLSTRAND, N.C. 1990: The development and application of a refined method for estimating gene flow from angiosperm paternity analysis. Evolution 44: 248-259.
22. DEVLIN, B., ROEDER, K. & ELLSTRAND, N.C. 1988: Fractional paternity assignment: theoretical development and comparison to other methods. Theor. Appl. Genet. 76: 369-380.
23. DI-GIOVANNI, F. & KEVAN, P.G. 1991: Factors affecting pollen dynamics and its importance to pollen contamination: a review. Can. J. For. Res. 21: 1155-1170.
24. DI-GIOVANNI, F., KEVAN, P. G. & ARNOLD, J. 1996: Lower planetary boundary layer profiles of atmospheric conifer pollen above a seed orchard in northern Ontario, Canada. For. Ecol. Manage. 83: 87-97.
25. DIFAZIO, S. P. 2002: Measuring and Modeling Gene Flow from Hybrid Poplar Plantations: Implications for Transgenic Risk Assessment. PhD Thesis, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR. http://www.fsl.orst.edu/tgerc/dif_thesis/ difaz_thesis.pdf
26. st Century (eds. Walter, C. & Carson, M.), Research Signpost, Kerala, India. pp. (in press).
27. DOW, B. D. & ASHLEY, M. V. 1996: Microsatellite analysis of seed dispersal and parentage of saplings in bur oak, Quercus macrocarpa. Mol. Ecol. 5: 120-130.
28. DOW, B. D. & ASHLEY, M. V. 1998: High levels of gene flow in bur oak revealed by paternity analysis using microsatellites. J. Hered. 89: 62-70.
29. DUNNING, J. B., STEWART, D. J., DANIELSON, B. J., NOON, B. R., ROOT, T. L., LAMBERSON, R. H. & STEVENS, E. E. 1995: Spatially explicit population models: Current forms and future uses. Ecol. Applic. 5: 3-11.
30. DYER, R. J. & SORK, V. L. 2001: Pollen pool heterogeneity in shortleaf pine, Pinus echinata Mill. Mol. Ecol. 10: 859-866.
31. EHRLEN, J. & Eriksson, O. 2000: Dispersal limitation and patch occupancy in forest herbs 29. Ecology 81: 1667-1674.
32. ELLSTRAND, N. C. 1992a: Gene flow among seed plant populations. New Forests 6: 241-256.
33. ELLSTRAND, N. C. 1992b: Gene flow by pollen: Implications for plant conservation genetics. Oikos 63: 77-86.
34. ERICKSON, V. J. & ADAMS, W. T. 1989: Mating success in a coastal Douglas-fir seed orchard as affected by distance and floral phenology. Can. J. For. Res. 19: 1248-1255.
35. FERDY, J. -B. & AUSTERLITZ, F. 2002: Extinction and introgression in a community of partially cross-fertile plant species. Am. Natur. 160:74-86.
36. FISHER, R. A. 1937: The wave of advance of advantageous genes. Ann. Eugen. 7: 355-369.
37. FRIEDMAN, S. T. & ADAMS, W. T. 1985: Estimation of gene flow into two seed orchards of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda L.). Theor. Appl. Genet. 69: 609-615.
38. GARCIA-RAMOS, G. & KIRKPATRICK, M. 1997: Genetic models of adaptation and gene flow in peripheral populations. Evolution 51:21-28.
39. GONZÁLEZ-MARTÍNEZ, S. C., BURCZYK, J., ROBLEDO, J. J., GIL, L. & R. ALÍA. 2001: Sistemas de reproducción y flujo genético: aplicación a la mejora genética de Pinus pinaster Ait. In: Proceedings of the III Spanish Forestry Conference. September 25-28, Granada. Volume II. Pp. 572-578.
40. GONZALEZ-MARTINEZ, S. C., GERBER, S., CERVERA, M. T., MARTINEZ-ZAPATER, J. M., GIL, L. AND ALIA, R. 2002: Seed gene flow and fine-scale structure in a Mediterranean pine (Pinus pinaster Ait.) using nuclear microsatellite markers. Theor. Appl. Genet. 104:1290-1297.
41. GREENE, D. F. & JOHNSON, E. A. 2000: Tree recruitment from burn edges. Can. J. For. Res. 30: 1264-1274.
42. HAMRICK, J. L. & NASON, J. D. 2000: Gene flow in forest trees. In: Forest Conservation Genetics: Principles and Practice (eds. Young, A., Boshier, D. & Boyle, T.), pp. 81-90, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Australia.
43. HANSKI, I. & GILPIN, M. 1997: Metapopulation Biology: Ecology, Genetics, and Evolution. Academic Press, London, UK.
44. HARJU, A. M. & NIKKANEN, T. 1996: Reproductive success of orchard and nonorchard pollens during different stages of pollen shedding in a Scots pine seed orchard. Can. J. For. Res. 26: 1096-1102.
45. HIGGINS, S. I. & RICHARDSON, D. M. 1996: A review of models of alien plant spread. Ecol. Modell. 87:249 -265.
46. HIGGINS, S. I. & RICHARDSON, D. M. 1998: Pine invasions in the southern hemisphere: modelling interactions between organism, environment and disturbance. Plant Ecol. 135: 79-93.
47. HIGGINS, S. I. & RICHARDSON, D. M. 1999: Predicting plant migration rates in a changing world: The role of long-distance dispersal. Am. Natur. 153: 464-475.
48. HIGGINS, S.I., RICHARDSON, D.M. & COWLING, R.M. 2000: Using a dynamic landscape model for planning the management of alien plant invasions. Ecol. Applic. 10: 1833-1848.
49. HJELMROOS, M. 1991: Evidence of long-distance transport of Betula pollen. Grana 30: 215-228.
50. ISAGI, Y. & KANAZASHI, T. 2002: Gene flow analysis in Magnolia obovata Thunb. using highly variable microsatellite markers. In: Diversity and interaction in a temperate forest community: Ogawa Forest Reserve of Japan (ed. Matsumoto, N.), pp. 257-269, Springer-Verlag, Tokyo.
51. KAMEYAMA, Y., ISAGI, Y. & NAKAGOSHI, N. 2001: Patterns and levels of gene flow in Rhododendron metternichii var. hondoense revealed by microsatellite analysis. Mol. Ecol. 10: 205-216.
52. KING, A.W. 1991: Translating models across scales in the landscape. In: Quantitative Methods in Landscape Ecology. Springer-Verlag, New York. pp. 479-517.
53. KLINGER, T., ARRIOLA, P.E. & ELLSTRAND, N.C. 1992: Crop-weed hybridization in radish (Raphanus sativus): Effects of distance and population size. Am. J. Bot. 79: 1431-1435.
54. KONUMA, A., TSUMURA, Y., LEE, C.T., LEE, S.L. & OKUDA, T. 2000: Estimation of gene flow in the tropical-rain-forest tree Neobalanocarpus heimii (Dipterocarpaceae), inferred from paternity analysis. Mol. Ecol. 9: 1843-1852.
55. LANDE, R. 1988: Genetics and demography in biological conservation. Science 241: 1455-1460.
56. LAVOREL, S., SMITH, M.S. & REID, N. 1999: Spread of mistletoes (Amyema preissii) in fragmented Australian woodlands: a simulation study. Landsc. Ecol. 14: 147-160.
57. LENORMAND, T. 2002: Gene flow and the limits to natural selection. Trends Ecol. Evol. 17: 183.
58. LEVIN, D.A. & KERSTER, H.W. 1974: Gene flow in seed plants. In: Evolutionary Biology 7. (eds. Dobzhansky, T. M., Hecht, M. T. & Steere, W. C.), pp. 139-220, Plenum Press, New York.
59. LEWIS, M. 1997: Variability, patchiness, and jump dispersal in the spread of an invading organism. In Spatial Ecology: The role of space in population dynamics and interspecific interactions. Princeton University Press, Princeton. pp. 46-69.
60. LEWONTIN, R. 1997: Dobzhansky's Genetics and the Origin of Species: Is it still relevant? Genetics 147: 351-355.
61. LIAN, C.L., MIWA, M. & HOGETSU, T. 2001: Outcrossing and paternity analysis of Pinus densiflora (Japanese red pine) by microsatellite polymorphism. Heredity 87: 88-98.
62. LINDGREN, D., PAULE, L., SHEN, X.H., YAZDANI, R., SEGERSTROM, U., WALLIN, J.E. & LEJDEBRO, M.L. 1995: Can viable pollen carry Scots pine genes over long distances? Grana 34: 64-69.
63. LOVELESS, M.D., HAMRICK, J.L. & FOSTER, R.B. 1998: Population structure and mating system in Tachigali versicolor, a monocarpic neotropical tree. Heredity 81: 134-143.
64. MANASSE, R.S. 1992: Ecological risks of transgenic plants: effects of spatial dispersion on gene flow. Ecol. Applic. 2: 431-438.
65. MARIETTE, S., COTTRELL, J., CSAIKL, U.M., GOIKOECHEA, P., KONIG, A., LOWE, A.J., VAN DAM, B.C., BARRENECHE, T., BODENES, C., STREIFF, R., BURG, K., GROPPE, K., MUNRO, R.C., TABBENER, H. & KREMER, A. 2002: Comparison of levels of genetic diversity detected with AFLP and microsatellite markers within and among mixed Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl. and Q. robur L. stands. Silvae Genet. 52: 72-79.
66. MARSHALL, T.C., SLATE, J., KRUUK, L.E. & PEMBERTON, J.M. 1998: Statistical confidence for likelihood-based paternity inference in natural populations. Mol. Ecol. 7: 639-655.
67. MASSEY, L.K. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1999: Breeding structure of a Yucca filamentosa (Agavaceae) population. Evolution 53: 1293-1298.
68. MEAGHER, T.R. 1991: Analysis of paternity within a natural population of Chamaelirium luteum. II. Patterns of male reproductive success. Am. Natur. 137: 738-752.
69. MEAGHER, T.R. & THOMPSON, E. 1987: Analysis of parentage for naturally established seedlings of Chamaelirium luteum (Liliaceae). Ecology 68: 803-812.
70. MILLAR, C.I. & LIBBY, W.J. 1991: Strategies for conserving clonal, ecotypic, and disjunct population diversity in widespread species. In: Genetics and Conservation of Rare Plants. Oxford University Press, Oxford. pp. 149-170.
71. MORGAN, M.T. 2002: Genome-wide deleterious mutations favors dispersal and species integrity. Heredity 89: 253-257.
72. MORGAN, M.T. & CONNER, J.K. 2001: Using genetic markers to directly estimate male selection gradients. Evolution 55: 272-281.
73. MÜLLER, G. 1976: A simple method of estimating rates of self-fertilization by analyzing isozymes in trees seeds. Silvae Genet. 25: 15-17.
74. NASON, J.D. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1997: Reproductive and genetic consequences of forest fragmentation: Two case studies of neotropical canopy trees. J. Hered. 88: 264-276.
75. NASON, J.D., HERRE, E.A. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1996: Paternity analysis of the breeding structure of strangler fig populations: Evidence for substantial long-distance wasp dispersal. J. Biogeogr. 23: 501-512.
76. NASON, J.D., HERRE, E.A. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1998: The breeding structure of a tropical keystone plant resource. Nature 391: 685-687.
77. NATHAN, R., SAFRIEL, U.N. & NOY MEIR, I. 2001: Field validation and sensitivity analysis of a mechanistic model for tree seed dispersal by wind. Ecology 82: 374-388.
78. NEIGEL, J.E. 1997: A comparison of alternative strategies for estimating gene flow from genetic markers. Ann. Rev. Ecol. System. 28: 105-128.
79. NIKLAS, K.J. 1997: The Evolutionary Biology of Plants. University of Chicago Press, Chicago.
80. OUBORG, N.J., PIQUOT, Y. & GROENENDAEL, J.M. 1999: Population genetics, molecular markers and the study of dispersal in plants. J. Ecol. 87: 551-568.
81. PAKKANEN, A. & PULKKINEN, P. 1991: Pollen production and background pollination levels in Scots pine seed orchards of northern Finnish origin. In: Pollen Contamination in seed orchards (ed. Lindgren, D.), Proceedings of the Meeting of the Nordic Group for Tree Breeding 1991, pp. 14-21, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå.
82. PAKKANEN, A., NIKKANEN, T. & PULKKINEN, P. 2000: Annual variation in pollen contamination and outcrossing in a Picea abies seed orchard. Scand. J. For. Res. 15: 399-404.
83. PEMBERTON, J.M., SLATE, J., BANCROFT, D.R. & BARRETT, J.A. 1995: Nonamplifying alleles at microsatellite loci: A caution for parentage and population studies. Mol. Ecol. 4: 249-252.
84. RAHMAN, M.H. & RAJORA, O.P. 2001: Microsatellite DNA somaclonal variation in micropropagated trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides). Plant Cell Rep. 20: 531-536.
85. ROGERS, C.A. & LEVETIN, E. 1998: Evidence of long-distance tranport of mountain cedar pollen into Tulsa, Oklahoma. Intern. J. Biomet. 42: 65-72.
86. RUESINK, J.L., PARKER, I.M., GROOM, M.J. & KAREIVA, P.M. 1995: Reducing the risks of nonindigenous species introductions. BioScience 45: 465-477.
87. SAVOLAINEN, O. 1991: Background pollination in seed orchards. In: Pollen Contamination in Seed Orchards (ed. Lindgren, D.), Proceedings of the Meeting of the Nordic Group for Tree Breeding 1991, pp. 6-13, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Department of Forest Genetics and Plant Physiology, Umeå,.
88. SAVOLAINEN, O. & KÄRKKAINEN, K. 1992: Effect of forest management on gene pools. New Forests 6: 329-345.
89. SCHEMSKE, D.W., HUSBAND, B.C., RUCKELSHAUS, M. H., GOODWILLIE, C., PARKER, I.M. & BISHOP, J.G. 1994: Evaluating approaches to the conservation of rare and endangered plants. Ecology 75: 584-606.
90. SCHNABEL, A. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1995: Understanding the population genetic structure of Gleditsia triacanthos L: The scale and pattern of pollen gene flow. Evolution 49: 921-931.
91. SCHNABEL, A., NASON, J.D. & HAMRICK, J.L. 1998: Understanding the population genetic structure of Gleditsia triacanthos L.: seed dispersal and variation in female reproductive success. Mol. Ecol. 7: 819-832.
92. SCHUSTER, W.S.F. & MITTON, J.B. 2000: Paternity and gene dispersal in limber pine (Pinus flexilis James). Heredity 84: 348-361.
93. SILEN, R.R. 1962: Pollen dispersal considerations for Douglas-fir. Journal of Forestry 60:790-795.
94. SLATKIN, M. 1981: Estimating levels of gene flow in natural populations. Genetics 75: 735-756.
95. SLATKIN, M. 1993: Isolation by distance in equilibrium and non-equilibrium populations. Evolution 47: 264-279.
96. SLAVOV, G. T., DIFAZIO, S. P. & STRAUSS, S. H. 2002: Gene flow in forest trees: From empirical estimates to transgenic risk assessment. In: Ecological and Agronomic Consequences of Gene Flow from Transgenic Crops to Wild Relatives. Ohio State University, Columbus, pp. 106-119 http://www.biosci.ohio- state.edu/~lspencer/Proceedings.pdf.
97. SMITH, D. B. & ADAMS, W. T. 1983: Measuring pollen contamination in clonal seed orchards with the aid of genetic markers. In: Proceedings of the 20th Southern Forest Tree Improvement Conference, pp. 69-77, Athens.
98. SMOUSE, P. E., DYER, R. J., WESTFALL, R. D. & SORK, V. L. 2001: Two-generation analysis of pollen flow across a landscape. I. Male gamete heterogeneity among females. Evolution 55: 260-271.
99. SNOW, A. A. & MORÁN-PALMA. 1997: Commercialization of transgenic plants: potential ecological risks. BioScience 47: 86-97.
100. SORK, V. L., NASON, J., CAMPBELL, D. R. & FERNANDEZ, J. 1999: Landscape approaches to contemporary gene flow in plants. Trends Ecol. Evol. 14: 219-224.
101. STACY, E. A., HAMRICK, J. L., NASON, J. D., HUBBELL, S. P., FOSTER, R. B. & CONDIT, R. 1996: Pollen dispersal in low-density populations of three neotropical tree species. Amer. Natur. 148: 275-298.
102. STEWART, S. C. 1994: Simultaneous estimation of pollen contamination and pollen fertilities of individual trees in conifer seed orchards using multilocus genetic data. Theor. Appl. Genet. 88: 593-596.
103. STRAUSS, S. H., DIFAZIO, S. P. & MEILAN, R. 2001: Genetically modified poplars in context. For. Chron. 77: 271-279.
104. STREIFF, R., DUCOUSSO, A., LEXER, C., STEINKELUMER, H., GLOESSL, J. & KREMER, A. 1999: Pollen dispersal inferred from paternity analysis in a mixed oak stand of Quercus robur L. and Q. petraea (Matt.) Liebl. Mol. Ecol. 8: 831-841.
105. TEMPLETON, A. R. 1986: Coadaptation and outbreeding depression. In: Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity. Sinauer, Sunderland, MA. pp. 105-116.
106. TURNER, M. G., GARDNER, R. & O'NEILL. 2001: Landscape Ecology in Theory and Practice: Pattern and Process. Springer-Verlag, New York.
107. WADE, M.J. & GOODNIGHT, C.J. 1998: Perspecitve: The theories of Fisher and Wright in the context of metapopulations: When nature does many small experiments. Evolution 52:1537-1553.
108. WANG, X., LINDGREN, D., SZMIDT, A. E. & YAZDANI, R. 1991: Pollen migration into a seed orchard of Pinus sylvestris L. and the methods of its estimation using allozyme markers. Scand. J. For. Res. 6: 379-385.
109. WHEELER, N. C., ADAMS, W. T. & HAMRICK, J. L. 1993: Pollen distribution in wind-pollinated seed orchards. In: Advances in Pollen Management (eds. Bramlett, D. L., Askew, G. R., Blush, T. D., Bridgwater, F. E. & Jett, J. B.), pp. 25-31, U.S. Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Washington, DC.
110. WHITE, G. M., BOSHIER, D. H. & POWELL, W. 2002: Increased pollen flow counteracts fragmentation in a tropical dry forest: An example from Swietenia humilis Zuccarini. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 99: 2038-2042.
111. ST ne 1/(4Nm + 1). Heredity 82: 117-125.
112. WILLIAMS, C. G. & SAVOLAINEN, O. 1996: Inbreeding depression in conifers: Implications for breeding strategy. For. Sci. 42: 102-117.
113. WORTHINGTON WILMER, J., ALLEN, P. J., POMEROY, P. P., TWISS, S. D. & AMOS, W. 1999: Where have all the fathers gone ? An extensive microsatellite analysis of paternity in the grey seal (Halichoreus grypus). Mol. Ecol. 8: 1417-1429.
114. WRIGHT, S. 1988: Surfaces of selective value revisited. Amer. Natur. 131: 115-123.
115. XIE, C. Y. & KNOWLES, P. 1994: Mating system and effective pollen immigration in a Norway spruce (Picea abies (L.) Karst) plantation. Silvae Genet. 43: 48-52.
116. XIE, C. Y., YEH, F. C., DANCIK, B. P. & STROBECK, C. 1991: Joint estimation of immigration and mating system parameters in gymnosperms using the EM algorithm. Theor. Appl. Genet. 83: 137-140.
117. YAZDANI, R., LINDGREN, D. & STEWART, S. 1989: Gene dispersion within a population of Pinus sylvestris. Scand. J. For. Res. 4: 295-306.