Ghrelin in growth and development

Hormone Research

Volumn 63, Issue 3, 2005, Pages 129-138

  Chanoine, J P ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF BRITISH COLUMBIA   (Canada)

^b BC CHILDREN S HOSPITAL   (Canada)

Author keywords

Anorexia nervosa; Fetal pancreas; Ghrelin; Growth hormone secretagogue receptor; Obesity; Prader Willi syndrome

Indexed keywords

GHRELIN;

B LYMPHOCYTE; BODY MASS; CELL MATURATION; CONTROLLED STUDY; ENERGY BALANCE; GENE EXPRESSION; HUMAN; NONHUMAN; PANCREAS; PERINATAL DEVELOPMENT; PRADER WILLI SYNDROME; PRIORITY JOURNAL; SHORT SURVEY;

ANIMALS; GROWTH AND DEVELOPMENT; GROWTH DISORDERS; HUMANS; PEPTIDE HORMONES; PRADER-WILLI SYNDROME;

EID: 18744406007     PISSN: 03010163     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1159/000084688     Document Type: Short Survey

References (94)

1. Bowers CY: Unnatural growth hormone-releasing peptide begets natural ghrelin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:1464-1469.
2. Howard AD, Feighner SD, Cully DF, et al: A receptor in pituitary and hypothalamus that functions in growth hormone release. Science 1996;273:974-977.
3. Kojima M, Hosoda H, Date Y, Nakazato M, Matsuo H, Kangawa K: Ghrelin is a growth-hormone-releasing acylated peptide from stomach. Nature. 1999;402:656-660.
4. Ariyasu H, Takaya K, Tagami T, Ogawa Y, Hosoda K, Akamizu T, Suda M, Koh T, Natsui K, Toyooka S, Shirakami G, Usui T, Shimatsu A, Doi K, Hosoda H, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Nakao K: Stomach is a major source of circulating ghrelin, and feeding state determines plasma ghrelin-like immunoreactivity levels in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:4753-4758.
5. van der Lely AJ, Tschop M, Heiman ML, Ghigo E: Biological, physiological, pathophysiological, and pharmacological aspects of ghrelin. Endocr Rev 2004;25:426-457.
6. Sun Y, Wang P, Zheng H, Smith RG: Ghrelin stimulation of growth hormone release and appetite is mediated through the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:4679-4684.
7. Tannenbaum GS, Epelbaum J, Bowers CY: Interrelationship between the novel peptide ghrelin and somatostatin/growth hormone-releasing hormone in regulation of pulsatile growth hormone secretion. Endocrinology 2003;144:967-974.
8. Chen HY, Trumbauer ME, Chen AS, Weingarth DT, Adams JR, Frazier EG, Shen Z, Marsh DJ, Feighner SD, Guan XM, Ye Z, Nargund RP, Smith RG, Van der Ploeg LH, Howard AD, MacNeil DJ, Qian S: Orexigenic action of peripheral ghrelin is mediated by neuropeptide Y and agouti-related protein. Endocrinology 2004;145:2607-2612.
9. Qian S, Chen H, Weingarth D, Trumbauer ME, Novi DE, Guan X, Yu H, Shen Z, Feng Y, Frazier E, Chen A, Camacko RE, Shearman LP, Gopal-Truter S, MacNeil DJ, Van der Ploeg LH, Marsh DJ: Neither agouti-related protein nor neuropeptide Y is critically required for the regulation of energy homeostasis in mice. Mol Cell Biol 2002;22:5027-5035.
10. Tschop M, Smiley DL, Heiman ML: Ghrelin induces adiposity in rodents. Nature 2000;407:908-913.
11. Thompson NM, Gill DA, Davies R, Loveridge N, Houston PA, Robinson IC, Wells T: Ghrelin and des-octanoyl ghrelin promote adipogenesis directly in vivo by a mechanism independent of the type 1a growth hormone secretagogue receptor. Endocrinology 2004;145:234-242.
12. Gualillo O, Caminos J, Blanco M, Garcia-Caballero T, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Dieguez C, Casanueva F: Ghrelin, a novel placental-derived hormone. Endocrinology 2001;142:788-794.
13. Chanoine JP, Wong AC: Ghrelin gene expression is markedly higher in fetal pancreas compared with fetal stomach: Effect of maternal fasting. Endocrinology 2004;145:3813-3820.
14. Prado CL, Pugh-Bernard AE, Elghazi L, Sosa-Pineda B, Sussel L: Ghrelin cells replace insulin-producing beta cells in two mouse models of pancreas development. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 2004;101:2924-2929.
15. Wierup N, Yang S, McEvilly RJ, Mulder H, Sundler F: Ghrelin is expressed in a novel endocrine cell type in developing rat islets and inhibits insulin secretion from INS-1 (832/13) cells. J Histochem Cytochem 2004;52:301-310.
16. Wierup N, Svensson H, Mulder H, Sundler F: The ghrelin cell: A novel developmentally regulated islet cell in the human pancreas. Regul Pept 2002;107:63-69.
17. Kamegai J, Tamura H, Shimizu T, Ishii S, Sugihara H, Oikawa S: Regulation of the ghrelin gene: Growth hormone-releasing hormone upregulates ghrelin mRNA in the pituitary. Endocrinology 2001;142:4154-4157.
18. Torsello A, Scibona B, Leo G, Bresciani E, Avallone R, Bulgarelli I, Luoni M, Zoli M, Rindi G, Cocchi D, Locatelli V: Ontogeny and tissue-specific regulation of ghrelin mRNA expression suggest that ghrelin is primarily involved in the control of extraendocrine functions in the rat. Neuroendocrinology 2003;77:91-99.
19. De Vriese C, Gregoire F, Lema-Kisoka R, Waelbroeck M, Robberecht P, Delporte C: Ghrelin degradation by serum and tissue homogenates: Identification of the cleavage sites. Endocrinology 2004;145:4997-5005.
20. Groschl M, Wagner R, Dotsch J, Rascher W, Rauh M: Preanalytical influences on the measurement of ghrelin. Clin Chem 2002;48:1114-1116.
21. Hosoda H, Doi K, Nagaya N, Okumura H, Nakagawa E, Enomoto M, Ono F, Kangawa K: Optimum collection and storage conditions for ghrelin measurements: Octanoyl modification of ghrelin is rapidly hydrolyzed to desacyl ghrelin in blood samples. Clin Chem 2004;50:1077-1080.
22. Groschl M, Uhr M, Kraus T: Evaluation of the comparability of commercial ghrelin assays. Clin Chem 2004;50:457-458.
23. Hirsh D, Heinrichs C, Leenders B, Wong ACK, Cummings DE, Chanoine JP: Ghrelin is suppressed by glucagon and does not mediate glucagon-related growth hormone release. Horm Res 2005;63:111-118.
24. Kitamura S, Yokota I, Hosoda H, Kotani Y, Matsuda J, Naito E, Ito M, Kangawa K, Kuroda Y: N-octanoylated ghrelin levels in cord and neonatal blood. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:4768 (letter).
25. Sun Y, Ahmed S, Smith RG: Deletion of ghrelin impairs neither growth nor appetite. Mol Cell Biol 2003;23:7973-7981.
26. Wortley KE, Anderson K, Garcia K, Murray J, Malinova L, Liu R, Moncrieffe M, Thabet K, Cox H, Yancopoulos GD, Wiegand SJ, Sleeman MW: Deletion of ghrelin reveals no effect on food intake, but a primary role in energy balance. Obes Res 2004;12:170.
27. Shuto Y, Shibasaki T, Otagiri A, Kuriyama H, Ohata H, Tamura H, Kamegai J, Sugihara H, Oikawa S, Wakabayashi I: Hypothalamic growth hormone secretagogue receptor regulates growth hormone secretion, feeding, and adiposity. J Clin Invest 2002;109:1429-1436.
28. Zhang Y, Proenca R, Maffei M, Barone M, Leopold L, Friedman JM: Positional cloning of the mouse obese gene and its human homologue. Nature 1994;372:425-432.
29. Herzog H: Neuropeptide Y and energy homeostasis: Insights from Y receptor knockout models. Eur J Pharmacol 2003;480:21-29.
30. Miraglia del Giudice E, Santoro N, Cirillo G, Raimondo P, Grandone A, D'Aniello A, Di Nardo M, Perrone L: Molecular screening of the ghrelin gene in Italian obese children: The Leu72Met variant is associated with an earlier onset of obesity. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord 2004;28:447-450.
31. Wang HJ, Geller F, Dempfle A, Schauble N, Friedel S, Lichtner P, Fontenla-Horro F, Wudy S, Hagemann S, Gortner L, Huse K, Remschmidt H, Bettecken T, Meitinger T, Schafer H, Hebebrand J, Hinney A: Ghrelin receptor gene: Identification of several sequence variants in extremely obese children and adolescents, healthy normal-weight and underweight students, and children with short normal stature. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:157-162.
32. Hinney A, Hoch A, Geller F, Schafer H, Siegfried W, Goldschmidt H, Remschmidt H, Hebebrand J: Ghrelin gene: Identification of missense variants and a frameshift mutation in extremely obese children and adolescents and healthy normal weight students. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:2716.
33. Vivenza D, Rapa A, Castellino N, Bellone S, Petri A, Vacca G, Aimaretti G, Broglio F, Bona G: Ghrelin gene polymorphisms and ghrelin, insulin, IGF-I, leptin and anthropometric data in children and adolescents. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:127-133.
34. Pantel J, Cabrol S, Nivot S, Hilal L, Legendre M, Hajaji Y, Morisset S, de Kerdanet M, Kadiri A, Epelbaum J, le Bouc Y, Amselem S: Familial short stature associated with a mutation in the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR). Endocrine Society Meeting, New Orleans, 2004, p 84 (OR 10-86).
35. Holst B, Schwartz TW: Constitutive ghrelin receptor activity as a signaling set-point in appetite regulation. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2004;25:113-117.
36. Lee HM, Wang G, Englander EW, Kojima M, Greeley GH Jr: Ghrelin, a new gastrointestinal endocrine peptide that stimulates insulin secretion: Enteric distribution, ontogeny, influence of endocrine, and dietary manipulations. Endocrinology 2002;143:185-190.
37. Liu YL, Yakar S, Otero-Corchon V, Low MJ, Liu JL: Ghrelin gene expression is age-dependent and influenced by gender and the level of circulating IGF-I. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2002;189:97-103.
38. Hayashida T, Nakahara K, Mondai MS, Date Y, Nakazato M, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Murakami N: Ghrelin in neonatal rats: Distribution in stomach and its possible role. J Endocrinol 2002;173:239-245.
39. Toshinai K, Mondal MS, Nakazato M, Date Y, Murakami N, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Matsukura S: Upregulation of Ghrelin expression in the stomach upon fasting, insulin-induced hypoglycemia, and leptin administration. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2001;281:1220-1225.
40. Wren AM, Small CJ, Abbott CR, Dhillo WS, Seal LJ, Cohen MA, Batterham RL, Taheri S, Stanley SA, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR: Ghrelin causes hyperphagia and obesity in rats. Diabetes 2001;50:2540-2547.
41. Grove KL, Smith MS: Ontogeny of the hypothalamic neuropeptide Y system. Physiol Behav 2003;79:47-63.
42. Nakahara K, Hayashida T, Nakazato M, Kojima M, Hosoda H, Kangawa K, Murakami N: Effect of chronic treatments with ghrelin on milk secretion in lactating rats. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2003;303:751-755.
43. Garcia A, Alvarez CV, Smith RG, Dieguez C: Regulation of Pit-1 expression by ghrelin and GHRP-6 through the GH secretagogue receptor. Mol Endocrinol 2001;15:1484-1495.
44. Kamegai J, Wakabayashi I, Kineman RD, Frohman LA: Growth hormone-releasing hormone receptor (GHRH-R) and growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHS-R) mRNA levels during postnatal development in male and female rats. J Neuroendocrinol 1999;11:299-306.
45. Katayama M, Nogami H, Nishiyama J, Kawase T, Kawamura K: Developmentally and regionally regulated expression of growth hormone secretagogue receptor mRNA in rat brain and pituitary gland. Neuroendocrinology 2000;72:333-340.
46. Desai M, Gayle D, Babu J, Ross MG: Programmed obesity in intrauterine growth restricted newborns: Modulation by newborn nutrition. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2005;288:R91-R96.
47. Bouret SG, Draper SJ, Simerly RB: Trophic action of leptin on hypothalamic neurons that regulate feeding. Science 2004;304:108-110.
48. Cortelazzi D, Cappiello V, Morpurgo PS, Ronzoni S, Nobile De Santis MS, Cetin I, Beck-Peccoz P, Spada A: Circulating levels of ghrelin in human fetuses. Eur J Endocrinol 2003;149:111-116.
49. Makino Y, Hosoda H, Shibata K, Makino I, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Kawarabayashi T: Alteration of plasma ghrelin levels associated with the blood pressure in pregnancy. Hypertension 2002;39:781-784.
50. Bellone S, Rapa A, Vivenza D, Vercellotti A, Petri A, Radetti G, Bellone J, Broglio F, Ghigo E, Bona G: Circulating ghrelin levels in the newborn are positively associated with gestational age. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2004;60:613-617.
51. Chanoine JP, Yeung LP, Wong AC: Umbilical cord ghrelin concentrations in asian and Caucasian neonates. Horm Res 2003;60:116-120.
52. Farquhar J, Heiman M, Wong AC, Wach R, Chessex P, Chanoine JP: Elevated umbilical cord ghrelin concentrations in small for gestational age neonates. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:4324-4327.
53. Kitamura S, Yokota I, Hosoda H, Kotani Y, Matsuda J, Naito E, Ito M, Kangawa K, Kuroda Y: Ghrelin concentration in cord and neonatal blood: Relation to fetal growth and energy balance. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:5473-5477.
54. Onal EE, Cinaz P, Atalay Y, Turkyilmaz C, Bideci A, Akturk A, Okumus N, Unal S, Koc E, Ergenekon E: Umbilical cord ghrelin concentrations in small- and appropriate-for-gestational age newborn infants: Relationship to anthropometric markers. J Endocrinol 2004;180:267-271.
55. Volante M, Allia E, Fulcheri E, Cassoni P, Ghigo E, Muccioli G, Papotti M: Ghrelin in fetal thyroid and follicular tumors and cell lines: Expression and effects on tumor growth. Am J Pathol 2003;162:645-654.
56. Volante M, Fulcheri E, Allia E, Cerrato M, Pucci A, Papotti M: Ghrelin expression in fetal, infant, and adult human lung. J Histochem Cytochem 2002;50:1013-1021.
57. James RJ, Drewett RF, Cheetham TD: Low cord ghrelin levels in term infants are associated with slow weight gain over the first 3 months of life. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004; 89:3847-3850.
58. Iniguez G, Ong K, Pena V, Avila A, Dunger D, Mericq V: Fasting and post-glucose ghrelin levels in SGA infants: Relationships with size and weight gain at one year of age. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:5830-5833.
59. Shimon I, Yan X, Melmed S: Human fetal pituitary expresses functional growth hormone-releasing peptide receptors. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:174-178.
60. Soriano-Guillen L, Barrios V, Chowen JA, Sanchez I, Vila S, Quero J, Argente J: Ghrelin levels from fetal life through early adulthood: Relationship with endocrine and metabolic and anthropometric measures. J Pediatr 2004;144:30-35.
61. Whatmore AJ, Hall CM, Jones J, Westwood M, Clayton PE: Ghrelin concentrations in healthy children and adolescents. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf) 2003;59:649-654.
62. Bunt JC, Salbe AD, Tschop MH, DelParigi A, Daychild P, Tataranni PA: Cross-sectional and prospective relationships of fasting plasma ghrelin concentrations with anthropometric measures in Pima Indian children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:3756-3761.
63. Ghizzoni L, Mastorakos G, Vottero A, Ziveri M, Ilias I, Bernasconi S: Spontaneous growth hormone (GH) secretion is not directly affected by ghrelin in either short normal prepubertal children or children with GH neurosecretory dysfunction. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:5488-5495.
64. Cummings DE, Weigle DS, Frayo RS, Breen PA, Ma MK, Dellinger EP, Purnell JQ: Plasma ghrelin levels after diet-induced weight loss or gastric bypass surgery. N Engl J Med 2002;346:1623-1630.
65. Cummings DE, Purnell JQ, Frayo RS, Schmidova K, Wisse BE, Weigle DS: A preprandial rise in plasma ghrelin levels suggests a role in meal initiation in humans. Diabetes 2001;50:1714-1719.
66. Cummings DE, Frayo RS, Marmonier C, Aubert R, Chapelot D: Plasma ghrelin levels and hunger scores in humans initiating meals voluntarily without time- and food-related cues. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2004;287:E297-E304.
67. Stock SL, Leichner P, Wong ACK, Ghatei MA, Kieffer TJ, Bloom SR, Chanoine JP: Ghrelin, PYY, GIP and hunger responses to a mixed meal in anorexic, obese and control female adolescents. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2005 Jan 18; [Epub ahead of print].
68. Bellone S, Rapa A, Vivenza D, Castellino N, Petri A, Bellone J, Me E, Broglio F, Prodam F, Ghigo E, Bona G: Circulating ghrelin levels as function of gender, pubertal status and adiposity in childhood. J Endocrinol Invest 2002;25:RC13-15.
69. Broglio F, Arvat E, Benso A, Gottero C, Muccioli G, Papotti M, van der Lely AJ, Deghenghi R, Ghigo E: Ghrelin, a natural GH secretagogue produced by the stomach, induces hyperglycemia and reduces insulin secretion in humans. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001;86:5083-5086.
70. Nakagawa E, Nagaya N, Okumura H, Enomoto M, Oya H, Ono F, Hosoda H, Kojima M, Kangawa K: Hyperglycaemia suppresses the secretion of ghrelin, a novel growth-hormone-releasing peptide: Responses to the intravenous and oral administration of glucose. Clin Sci (Lond) 2002;103:325-328.
71. Saad MF, Bernaba B, Hwu CM, Jinagouda S, Fahmi S, Kogosov E, Boyadjian R: Insulin regulates plasma ghrelin concentration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2002;87:3997-4000.
72. Ikezaki A, Hosoda H, Ito K, Iwama S, Miura N, Matsuoka H, Kondo C, Kojima M, Kangawa K, Sugihara S: Fasting plasma ghrelin levels are negatively correlated with insulin resistance and PAI-1, but not with leptin, in obese children and adolescents. Diabetes 2002;51:3408-3411.
73. Soriano-Guillen L, Barrios V, Campos-Barros A, Argente J: Ghrelin levels in obesity and anorexia nervosa: Effect of weight reduction or recuperation. J Pediatr 2004;144:36-42.
74. Soriano-Guillen L, Barrios V, Lechuga-Sancho A, Chowen JA, Argente J: Response of circulating ghrelin levels to insulin therapy in children with newly diagnosed type 1 diabetes mellitus. Pediatr Res 2004;55:830-835.
75. Tschop M, Weyer C, Tataranni PA, Devanarayan V, Ravussin E, Heiman ML: Circulating ghrelin levels are decreased in human obesity. Diabetes 2001;50:707-709.
76. Misra M, Miller KK, Herzog DB, Ramaswamy K, Aggarwal A, Almazan C, Neubauer G, Breu J, Klibanski A: Growth hormone and ghrelin responses to an oral glucose load in adolescent girls with anorexia nervosa and controls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:1605-1612.
77. Soriano-Guillen L, Barrios V, Martos G, Chowen JA, Campos-Barros A, Argente J: Effect of oral glucose administration on ghrelin levels in obese children. Eur J Endocrinol 2004;151:119-121.
78. Mericq V, Cassorla F, Salazar T, Avila A, Iniguez G, Bowers CY, Merriam GR: Effects of eight months treatment with graded doses of a growth hormone (GH)-releasing peptide in GH-deficient children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:2355-2360.
79. Mericq V, Cassorla F, Garcia H, Avila A, Bowers CY, Merriam GR: Growth hormone (GH) responses to GH-releasing peptide and to GH-releasing hormone in GH-deficient children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1995;80:1681-1684.
80. Pihoker C, Kearns GL, French D, Bowers CY: Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of growth hormone-releasing peptide-2: A phase I study in children. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998;83:1168-1172.
81. Racine MS, Symons KV, Foster CM, Barkan AL: Augmentation of growth hormone secretion after testosterone treatment in boys with constitutional delay of growth and adolescence: Evidence against an increase in hypothalamic secretion of growth hormone-releasing hormone. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:3326-3331.
82. Butler MG: Prader-Willi syndrome: Current understanding of cause and diagnosis. Am J Med Genet 1990;35:319-332.
83. Schoeller DA, Levitsky LL, Bandini LG, Dietz WW, Walczak A: Energy expenditure and body composition in Prader-Willi syndrome. Metabolism 1988;37:115-120.
84. Cassidy SB: Prader-Willi syndrome. Curr Probl Pediatr 1984;14:1-55.
85. Holland AJ, Treasure J, Coskeran P, Dallow J: Characteristics of the eating disorder in Prader-Willi syndrome: implications for treatment. J Intellect Disabil Res 1995;39(Pt 5):373-381.
86. Thacker MJ, Hainline B, St Dennis-Feezle L, Johnson NB, Pescovitz OH: Growth failure in Prader-Willi syndrome is secondary to growth hormone deficiency. Horm Res 1998;49:216-220.
87. Costeff H, Holm VA, Ruvalcaba R, Shaver J: Growth hormone secretion in Prader-Willi syndrome. Acta Paediatr Scand 1990;79:1059-1062.
88. Tauber M, Conte Auriol F, Moulin P, Molinas C, Delagnes V, Salles JP: Hyperghrelinemia is a common feature of Prader-Willi syndrome and pituitary stalk interruption: A pathophysiological hypothesis. Horm Res 2004;62:49-54.
89. Haqq AM, Farooqi IS, O'Rahilly S, Stadler DD, Rosenfeld RG, Pratt KL, LaFranchi SH, Purnell JQ: Serum ghrelin levels are inversely correlated with body mass index, age, and insulin concentrations in normal children and are markedly increased in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:174-178.
90. Paik KH, Jin DK, Song SY, Lee JE, Ko SH, Song SM, Kim JS, Oh YJ, Kim SW, Lee SH, Kim SH, Kwon EK, Choe YH: Correlation between fasting plasma ghrelin levels and age, body mass index (BMI), BMI percentiles, and 24-hour plasma ghrelin profiles in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:3885-3889.
91. Haqq AM, Stadler DD, Rosenfeld RG, Pratt KL, Weigle DS, Frayo RS, LaFranchi SH, Cummings DE, Purnell JQ: Circulating ghrelin levels are suppressed by meals and octreotide therapy in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:3573-3576.
92. Bizzarri C, Rigamonti AE, Giannone G, Berardinelli R, Cella SG, Cappa M, Muller EE: Maintenance of a normal meal-induced decrease in plasma ghrelin levels in children with Prader-Willi syndrome. Horm Metab Res 2004;36:164-169.
93. Tan TM, Vanderpump M, Khoo B, Patterson M, Ghatei MA, Goldstone AP: Somatostatin infusion lowers plasma ghrelin without reducing appetite in adults with Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2004;89:4162-4165.
94. Haqq AM, Stadler DD, Jackson RH, Rosenfeld RG, Purnell JQ, LaFranchi SH: Effects of growth hormone on pulmonary function, sleep quality, behavior, cognition, growth velocity, body composition, and resting energy expenditure in Prader-Willi syndrome. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2003;88:2206-2212.