Between civil rights and black power in the gateway city: The action committee to improve opportunities for Negroes (action), 1964-75

Journal of Social History

Volumn 37, Issue 3, 2004, Pages 725-754

  Lang, Clarence ^a,b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA CHAMPAIGN   (United States)

^b 309 Gregory Hall ^*  (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 1842854539     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2004.0013     Document Type: Review

References (156)

1. Robert J. Moore, Jr., "Showdown under the Arch: The Construction Trades and the First 'Pattern or Practice' Equal Employment Opportunity Suit, 1966," Gateway Heritage 15 (1994-95): 30-43. See also "CORE Member Gets 30 Days, Is Fined $250 for Climbing Arch," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 15, 1964; "Arch Climber Gets 30 Days, Fined $250," St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 16, 1964; and "Two CORE Members Climb Arch Leg and Refuse Appeals to Come Down," Post-Dispatch, July 14, 1964. These newspaper accounts come from the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, compiled by the Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, henceforth referenced as MHS. See also George Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988), 84-5.
2. Robert J. Moore, Jr., "Showdown under the Arch: The Construction Trades and the First 'Pattern or Practice' Equal Employment Opportunity Suit, 1966," Gateway Heritage 15 (1994-95): 30-43. See also "CORE Member Gets 30 Days, Is Fined $250 for Climbing Arch," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 15, 1964; "Arch Climber Gets 30 Days, Fined $250," St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 16, 1964; and "Two CORE Members Climb Arch Leg and Refuse Appeals to Come Down," Post-Dispatch, July 14, 1964. These newspaper accounts come from the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, compiled by the Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, henceforth referenced as MHS. See also George Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988), 84-5.
3. Robert J. Moore, Jr., "Showdown under the Arch: The Construction Trades and the First 'Pattern or Practice' Equal Employment Opportunity Suit, 1966," Gateway Heritage 15 (1994-95): 30-43. See also "CORE Member Gets 30 Days, Is Fined $250 for Climbing Arch," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 15, 1964; "Arch Climber Gets 30 Days, Fined $250," St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 16, 1964; and "Two CORE Members Climb Arch Leg and Refuse Appeals to Come Down," Post-Dispatch, July 14, 1964. These newspaper accounts come from the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, compiled by the Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, henceforth referenced as MHS. See also George Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988), 84-5.
4. Robert J. Moore, Jr., "Showdown under the Arch: The Construction Trades and the First 'Pattern or Practice' Equal Employment Opportunity Suit, 1966," Gateway Heritage 15 (1994-95): 30-43. See also "CORE Member Gets 30 Days, Is Fined $250 for Climbing Arch," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 15, 1964; "Arch Climber Gets 30 Days, Fined $250," St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 16, 1964; and "Two CORE Members Climb Arch Leg and Refuse Appeals to Come Down," Post-Dispatch, July 14, 1964. These newspaper accounts come from the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, compiled by the Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, henceforth referenced as MHS. See also George Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988), 84-5.
5. Robert J. Moore, Jr., "Showdown under the Arch: The Construction Trades and the First 'Pattern or Practice' Equal Employment Opportunity Suit, 1966," Gateway Heritage 15 (1994-95): 30-43. See also "CORE Member Gets 30 Days, Is Fined $250 for Climbing Arch," St. Louis Post-Dispatch, July 15, 1964; "Arch Climber Gets 30 Days, Fined $250," St. Louis Globe-Democrat, July 16, 1964; and "Two CORE Members Climb Arch Leg and Refuse Appeals to Come Down," Post-Dispatch, July 14, 1964. These newspaper accounts come from the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, compiled by the Missouri Historical Society Library and Research Center, henceforth referenced as MHS. See also George Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle: Ivory Perry and the Culture of Opposition (Philadelphia, 1988), 84-5.
6. Moore, "Showdown under the Arch," Gateway Heritage.
7. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
8. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
9. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
10. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
11. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
12. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
13. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
14. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
15. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
16. As examples of such literature, see Robert Korstad and Nelson Lichtenstein, "Opportunities Found and Lost: Labor, Radicals, and the Early Civil Rights Movement," Journal of American History 75 (1988): 786-811; Robin D.G. Kelley, Race Rebels: Culture, Politics, and the Black Working Class (New York, 1994); William H. Chafe, Civilities and Civil Rights: Greensboro, North Carolina, and the Black Struggle for Freedom (New York, 1980; reprt. 1981); Robert J. Norrell, Reaping the Whirlwind: The Civil Rights Movement in Tuskegee (New York, 1985); Michael K. Honey, Southern Labor and Black Civil Rights: Organizing Memphis Workers (Urbana, 1993); John Dittmer, Local People: The Struggle for Civil Rights in Mississippi (Urbana, 1994); Beth Tompkins Bates, Pullman Porters and the Rise of Protest Politics in Black America, 1925-1945 (Chapel Hill, 2001); and Kimberley L. Phillips, Alabama North: African-American Migrants, Community, and Working-Class Activism in Cleveland, 1915-45 (Urbana, 1999). See also Steven F. Lawson, "Freedom Then, Freedom Now: The Historiography of the Civil Rights Movement," American Historical Review 96 (1991): 456-471; and Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, "Toward A New African American Urban History," Journal of Urban History 21 (March 1995): 283-295.
17. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
18. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
19. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
20. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
21. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
22. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
23. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
24. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
25. Armstead L. Robinson and Patricia Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights (Charlottesville, 1991); Adolph L. Reed, "The 'Black Revolution' and the Reconstitution of Domination," in Reed, ed., Race, Politics, and Culture: Critical Essays on the Radicalism of the 1960s (New York, 1986), 61-95; Charles M. Payne, I've Got the Light of Freedom: The Organizing Tradition and the Mississippi Freedom Struggle (Berkeley, 1995); Clayborne Carson, "Civil Rights Reform and the Black Freedom Struggle," in Charles W. Eagles, ed., The Civil Rights Movement in America (Jackson, 1986); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History 85 (1998): 540-71; Tyson, Radio Free Dixie; Robert F. Williams and the Roots of Black Power (Chapel Hill, 1999); Thomas M. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration: Power on Parade, 1877-1995 (Columbia, 2000), 114-39; and Peniel E. Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour: Reconceptualizing the Heroic Period of the Civil Rights Movement, 1954-1965," Souls 2 (2000): 6-17. Joseph was guest editor of two special issues of The Black Scholar (Fall-Winter 2001 and Spring 2002), devoted to "Black Power Studies." See also Jeanne F. Theoharis and Komozi Woodard, eds., Freedom North: Black Freedom Struggles Outside the South, 1940-1980 (New York, 2003).
26. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
27. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
28. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
29. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
30. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
31. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
32. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
33. Afro-Americans in St. Louis, Collection 36, Folders 2-20, Western Historical Manuscript Collection, University of Missouri-St. Louis, hereafter referenced as WHMC; William Barnaby Faherty, St. Louis - A Concise History, third edition (Masonry Institute of St. Louis, 1999); Jon C. Teaford, Cities of the Heartland: The Rise and Fall of the Industrial Midwest (Bloomington, 1993); James Neal Primm, Lion of the Valley: St. Louis, Missouri, 1764-1980, third edition (St. Louis, 1998); Ernest D. Kargau, Mercantile, Industrial and Professional Saint Louis (St. Louis, 1902); Lana Stein, St. Louis Politics: The Triumph of Tradition (St. Louis, 2002), 13-26; Katharine T. Corbett, "Missouri's Black History: From Colonial Times to 1970," Gateway Heritage 4 (1983): 16-25; Katharine T. Corbett and Mary E. Seematter, "'No Crystal Stair': Black St. Louis, 1920-1940," Gateway Heritage 16 (1995): 82-88; and Lorenzo J. Greene, Gary R. Kremer, and Anthony F. Holland, Missouri's Black Heritage, revised edition (Columbia, 1993).
34. Segregation Scrapbook, MHS; The Ville, Collection 5, Folders 1-2, WHMC; John A. Wright, Discovering African-American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites (St. Louis, 1994); Wright, The Ville: St. Louis (Chicago, 2001); George Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St. Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City (Columbia, 1991); Daniel T. Kelleher, "The History of the St. Louis NAACP, 1914-1955 (MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1969); and Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Philadelphia, 2001), 11-12.
35. Segregation Scrapbook, MHS; The Ville, Collection 5, Folders 1-2, WHMC; John A. Wright, Discovering African-American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites (St. Louis, 1994); Wright, The Ville: St. Louis (Chicago, 2001); George Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St. Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City (Columbia, 1991); Daniel T. Kelleher, "The History of the St. Louis NAACP, 1914-1955 (MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1969); and Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Philadelphia, 2001), 11-12.
36. Segregation Scrapbook, MHS; The Ville, Collection 5, Folders 1-2, WHMC; John A. Wright, Discovering African-American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites (St. Louis, 1994); Wright, The Ville: St. Louis (Chicago, 2001); George Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St. Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City (Columbia, 1991); Daniel T. Kelleher, "The History of the St. Louis NAACP, 1914-1955 (MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1969); and Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Philadelphia, 2001), 11-12.
37. Segregation Scrapbook, MHS; The Ville, Collection 5, Folders 1-2, WHMC; John A. Wright, Discovering African-American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites (St. Louis, 1994); Wright, The Ville: St. Louis (Chicago, 2001); George Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St. Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City (Columbia, 1991); Daniel T. Kelleher, "The History of the St. Louis NAACP, 1914-1955 (MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1969); and Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Philadelphia, 2001), 11-12.
38. Segregation Scrapbook, MHS; The Ville, Collection 5, Folders 1-2, WHMC; John A. Wright, Discovering African-American St. Louis: A Guide to Historic Sites (St. Louis, 1994); Wright, The Ville: St. Louis (Chicago, 2001); George Lipsitz, The Sidewalks of St. Louis: Places, People, and Politics in an American City (Columbia, 1991); Daniel T. Kelleher, "The History of the St. Louis NAACP, 1914-1955 (MA thesis, Southern Illinois University at Edwardsville, 1969); and Eric Sandweiss, St. Louis: The Evolution of an American Urban Landscape (Philadelphia, 2001), 11-12.
39. Paul Dennis Brunn, "Black Workers and Social Movements of the 1930s in St. Louis" (Ph.D. dissertation, Washington University, 1975).
40. Mary Kimbrough and Margaret W. Dagen, Victory Without Violence: The First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), 1947-1957 (Columbia, 2000); Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York, 1968); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York, 1973); Patricia L. Adams, "Fighting for Democracy in St. Louis: Civil Rights During World War II," Missouri Historical Review (October 1985): 58-75; and Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York, 1984), 128-38.
41. Mary Kimbrough and Margaret W. Dagen, Victory Without Violence: The First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), 1947-1957 (Columbia, 2000); Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York, 1968); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York, 1973); Patricia L. Adams, "Fighting for Democracy in St. Louis: Civil Rights During World War II," Missouri Historical Review (October 1985): 58-75; and Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York, 1984), 128-38.
42. Mary Kimbrough and Margaret W. Dagen, Victory Without Violence: The First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), 1947-1957 (Columbia, 2000); Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York, 1968); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York, 1973); Patricia L. Adams, "Fighting for Democracy in St. Louis: Civil Rights During World War II," Missouri Historical Review (October 1985): 58-75; and Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York, 1984), 128-38.
43. Mary Kimbrough and Margaret W. Dagen, Victory Without Violence: The First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), 1947-1957 (Columbia, 2000); Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York, 1968); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York, 1973); Patricia L. Adams, "Fighting for Democracy in St. Louis: Civil Rights During World War II," Missouri Historical Review (October 1985): 58-75; and Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York, 1984), 128-38.
44. Mary Kimbrough and Margaret W. Dagen, Victory Without Violence: The First Ten Years of the St. Louis Committee of Racial Equality (CORE), 1947-1957 (Columbia, 2000); Inge Powell Bell, CORE and the Strategy of Nonviolence (New York, 1968); August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, CORE: A Study in the Civil Rights Movement, 1942-1968 (New York, 1973); Patricia L. Adams, "Fighting for Democracy in St. Louis: Civil Rights During World War II," Missouri Historical Review (October 1985): 58-75; and Aldon D. Morris, The Origins of the Civil Rights Movement: Black Communities Organizing for Change (New York, 1984), 128-38.
45. Ernest Calloway Papers, 1937-1983, Collection 11, Box 4, Folder 46, WHMC; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 71; and Stein, St. Louis Politics, 129-31.
46. Ernest Calloway Papers, 1937-1983, Collection 11, Box 4, Folder 46, WHMC; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 71; and Stein, St. Louis Politics, 129-31.
47. Ernest Calloway Papers, 1937-1983, Collection 11, Box 4, Folder 46, WHMC; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 71; and Stein, St. Louis Politics, 129-31.
48. Naomi W. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis: Research Report of the Urban League of St. Louis (St. Louis, 1965), 16; Marvin Rich, "Civil Rights Strategy After the March," New Politics 1 (1963): 43-52; and Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, November 30, 1988, transcribed by Nikki Hara, April 18, 1992, "'A. Strong Seed Planted': The Civil Rights Movement in St. Louis, 1954-1968" Oral History Collection, Box 1, MHS.
49. Naomi W. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis: Research Report of the Urban League of St. Louis (St. Louis, 1965), 16; Marvin Rich, "Civil Rights Strategy After the March," New Politics 1 (1963): 43-52; and Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, November 30, 1988, transcribed by Nikki Hara, April 18, 1992, "'A. Strong Seed Planted': The Civil Rights Movement in St. Louis, 1954-1968" Oral History Collection, Box 1, MHS.
50. Naomi W. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis: Research Report of the Urban League of St. Louis (St. Louis, 1965), 16; Marvin Rich, "Civil Rights Strategy After the March," New Politics 1 (1963): 43-52; and Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, November 30, 1988, transcribed by Nikki Hara, April 18, 1992, "'A. Strong Seed Planted': The Civil Rights Movement in St. Louis, 1954-1968" Oral History Collection, Box 1, MHS.
51. Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, and Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, December 12, 1988, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and "CORE Made Error in Violating Order, Sen. McNeal Asserts," Globe-Democrat, October 21, 1963, 10A.
52. Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, and Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, December 12, 1988, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and "CORE Made Error in Violating Order, Sen. McNeal Asserts," Globe-Democrat, October 21, 1963, 10A.
53. Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, and Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, December 12, 1988, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and "CORE Made Error in Violating Order, Sen. McNeal Asserts," Globe-Democrat, October 21, 1963, 10A.
54. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
55. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
56. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
57. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
58. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
59. Marian and Charles Oldham, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 76-80; Meier and Rudwick, CORE, 237; Francesca Polletta, "Strategy and Identity in 1960s Black Protest," Research in Social Movements, Conflicts and Change 17 (1994): 85-114; Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, Mass., 1981); and James Forman, The Making of Black Revolutionaries (1972; reprt., Seattle, 1985).
60. Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 1, Folder 2, WHMC; and Primm, Lion of the Valley, 507-8.
61. Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 1, Folder 2, WHMC; and Primm, Lion of the Valley, 507-8.
62. Stein, St. Louis Politics; Primm, Lion of the Valley, 496-97; and the St. Louis City Plan Commission, History: Physical Growth of the City of St. Louis (1969), 34-5.
63. Stein, St. Louis Politics; Primm, Lion of the Valley, 496-97; and the St. Louis City Plan Commission, History: Physical Growth of the City of St. Louis (1969), 34-5.
64. Stein, St. Louis Politics; Primm, Lion of the Valley, 496-97; and the St. Louis City Plan Commission, History: Physical Growth of the City of St. Louis (1969), 34-5.
65. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis; and Lee Rainwater, Behind Ghetto Walls: Black Family Life in a Federal Slum (Chicago, 1970).
66. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis; and Lee Rainwater, Behind Ghetto Walls: Black Family Life in a Federal Slum (Chicago, 1970).
67. Robert Self, "'To Plan Our Liberation': Black Power and the Politics of Place in Oakland, California, 1965-1977," Journal of Urban History 26 (2000): 759-792; and William W. Sales, Jr., From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (Boston, 1994).
68. Robert Self, "'To Plan Our Liberation': Black Power and the Politics of Place in Oakland, California, 1965-1977," Journal of Urban History 26 (2000): 759-792; and William W. Sales, Jr., From Civil Rights to Black Liberation: Malcolm X and the Organization of Afro-American Unity (Boston, 1994).
69. "New Civil Rights Group Formed Here," St. Louis Defender, February 3, 1965, 3, Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 3, Folder 23, WHMC; "ACTION To Present Play," St. Louis Argus, June 4, 1965, 1A; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Michael Dixon, "Civil Rights Groups in This Area Have Grown in Last Two Years," Post-Dispatch, August 4, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
70. "New Civil Rights Group Formed Here," St. Louis Defender, February 3, 1965, 3, Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 3, Folder 23, WHMC; "ACTION To Present Play," St. Louis Argus, June 4, 1965, 1A; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Michael Dixon, "Civil Rights Groups in This Area Have Grown in Last Two Years," Post-Dispatch, August 4, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
71. "New Civil Rights Group Formed Here," St. Louis Defender, February 3, 1965, 3, Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 3, Folder 23, WHMC; "ACTION To Present Play," St. Louis Argus, June 4, 1965, 1A; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Michael Dixon, "Civil Rights Groups in This Area Have Grown in Last Two Years," Post-Dispatch, August 4, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
72. "New Civil Rights Group Formed Here," St. Louis Defender, February 3, 1965, 3, Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 3, Folder 23, WHMC; "ACTION To Present Play," St. Louis Argus, June 4, 1965, 1A; Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Michael Dixon, "Civil Rights Groups in This Area Have Grown in Last Two Years," Post-Dispatch, August 4, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
73. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis, 20-22; and David M. Streifford, "Racial Economic Dualism in St. Louis," The Review of Black Political Economy 4 (1974): 63-83.
74. Lede, A Statistical Profile of the Negro in St. Louis, 20-22; and David M. Streifford, "Racial Economic Dualism in St. Louis," The Review of Black Political Economy 4 (1974): 63-83.
75. ACTION circular, April 20, 1965, in author's possession.
76. Daniel Patrick Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for National Action (Washington, D.C., 1965).
77. Percy Green, taped interview with author, August 20, 1997; ACTION circular, April 20, 1965; and Robert Lucken, "Bell Rate Plans Called Too Secret," Globe-Democrat, May 24, 1972.
78. Percy Green, taped interview with author, August 20, 1997; ACTION circular, April 20, 1965; and Robert Lucken, "Bell Rate Plans Called Too Secret," Globe-Democrat, May 24, 1972.
79. Percy Green, taped interview with author, August 20, 1997; ACTION circular, April 20, 1965; and Robert Lucken, "Bell Rate Plans Called Too Secret," Globe-Democrat, May 24, 1972.
80. "Local Civil Rights Groups Feud Over Negro Job Progress At Phone Co.," Argus, April 30, 1965, 1A; "Dispute Runs on Phone Co.'s Hiring Policy," Argus, May 7, 1965, 1A; and "ACTION Leaders Here Jailed In Telephone Co. Demonstration," Argus, June 11, 1965, 1A.
81. "Local Civil Rights Groups Feud Over Negro Job Progress At Phone Co.," Argus, April 30, 1965, 1A; "Dispute Runs on Phone Co.'s Hiring Policy," Argus, May 7, 1965, 1A; and "ACTION Leaders Here Jailed In Telephone Co. Demonstration," Argus, June 11, 1965, 1A.
82. "Local Civil Rights Groups Feud Over Negro Job Progress At Phone Co.," Argus, April 30, 1965, 1A; "Dispute Runs on Phone Co.'s Hiring
83. "ACTION Stages Paint 'Splash In' At Downtown Bell Telephone Building," Argus, August 13, 1965, 1A; and "Civil Rights Group Continues to Picket Utility Companies Here," Post-Dispatch, August 25, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
84. "ACTION Stages Paint 'Splash In' At Downtown Bell Telephone Building," Argus, August 13, 1965, 1A; and "Civil Rights Group Continues to Picket Utility Companies Here," Post-Dispatch, August 25, 1965, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS.
85. "ACTION Hits 'Mac' With Bias Charge," Argus, July 9, 1965, 1A.
86. Spencer, The St. Louis Veiled Prophet Celebration, 130.
87. Calloway Papers, Collection 11, Box 1, Folders 5 and 10, and Box 2, Folder 14, WHMC.
88. "4 Gas Bombs Hurled into Negro Crowd," Globe-Democrat, July 7, 1964, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; "Youth - Handcuffed - Shot To Death By A Policeman Here," Argus, June 18, 1965, 1A; and "Policeman Shoots Youth," Argus, September 10, 1965, 1A. See also Matthew J. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1998), 311.
89. "4 Gas Bombs Hurled into Negro Crowd," Globe-Democrat, July 7, 1964, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; "Youth - Handcuffed - Shot To Death By A Policeman Here," Argus, June 18, 1965, 1A; and "Policeman Shoots Youth," Argus, September 10, 1965, 1A. See also Matthew J. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1998), 311.
90. "4 Gas Bombs Hurled into Negro Crowd," Globe-Democrat, July 7, 1964, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; "Youth - Handcuffed - Shot To Death By A Policeman Here," Argus, June 18, 1965, 1A; and "Policeman Shoots Youth," Argus, September 10, 1965, 1A. See also Matthew J. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1998), 311.
91. "4 Gas Bombs Hurled into Negro Crowd," Globe-Democrat, July 7, 1964, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 2, MHS; "Youth - Handcuffed - Shot To Death By A Policeman Here," Argus, June 18, 1965, 1A; and "Policeman Shoots Youth," Argus, September 10, 1965, 1A. See also Matthew J. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971" (Ph.D. dissertation, Duke University, 1998), 311.
92. "ACTION Group Obstructs Veiled Prophet Spectacle," Argus, October 8, 1965, 1A; "Crowd Defies Police, Attacks Passing Autos," Post-Dispatch, May 5, 1967; and "4 Arrested in Deflating of Bread Truck Tires," Post-Dispatch, June 18, 1967.
93. "ACTION Group Obstructs Veiled Prophet Spectacle," Argus, October 8, 1965, 1A; "Crowd Defies Police, Attacks Passing Autos," Post-Dispatch, May 5, 1967; and "4 Arrested in Deflating of Bread Truck Tires," Post-Dispatch, June 18, 1967.
94. "ACTION Group Obstructs Veiled Prophet Spectacle," Argus, October 8, 1965, 1A; "Crowd Defies Police, Attacks Passing Autos," Post-Dispatch, May 5, 1967; and "4 Arrested in Deflating of Bread Truck Tires," Post-Dispatch, June 18, 1967.
95. Primm, Lion of the Valley, 503; and St. Louis City Plan Commission, History, 33-34.
96. Primm, Lion of the Valley, 503; and St. Louis City Plan Commission, History, 33-34.
97. Al Delugach, "The Heart of the Poverty War" series, Globe-Democrat, February 14 and 15, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Ernest Calloway Papers Addenda, Collection 540, Box 5, Folder 128, WHMC. See also Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 173-74.
98. Al Delugach, "The Heart of the Poverty War" series, Globe-Democrat, February 14 and 15, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Ernest Calloway Papers Addenda, Collection 540, Box 5, Folder 128, WHMC. See also Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 173-74.
99. Al Delugach, "The Heart of the Poverty War" series, Globe-Democrat, February 14 and 15, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Ernest Calloway Papers Addenda, Collection 540, Box 5, Folder 128, WHMC. See also Lipsitz, A Life in the Struggle, 173-74.
100. Luther Mitchell, taped interview with "Sister" Prince, March 9, 1990, transcribed by Nikki Hara, May 3, 1992, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS.
101. Percy Green Papers, WHMC; Timothy Bleck, "ACTION, Founded by Group from CORE, Remains Integrated, Takes Nonviolent Line," Post-Dispatch, September 18, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1966).
102. Percy Green Papers, WHMC; Timothy Bleck, "ACTION, Founded by Group from CORE, Remains Integrated, Takes Nonviolent Line," Post-Dispatch, September 18, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1966).
103. Percy Green Papers, WHMC; Timothy Bleck, "ACTION, Founded by Group from CORE, Remains Integrated, Takes Nonviolent Line," Post-Dispatch, September 18, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York, 1966).
104. Bleck, "ACTION, Founded by Group From CORE, Remains Integrated, Takes Nonviolent Line," Post-Dispatch, Sept. 18, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS.
105. Bleck, "ACTION, Founded by Group From CORE, Remains Integrated, Takes Nonviolent Line," Post-Dispatch, Sept. 18, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; and Percy Green, taped interview with Ernestine Hardge, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS.
106. James Rollins, taped interview with Ernestine R. Hardge, January 6, 1989, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Timothy Bleck, "Black Liberators Represent Type of Militancy Unknown in St. Louis Before This Summer," Post-Dispatch, September 17, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Kenneth Jolly, "Reaction to Liberation: Official Response to the Black Liberation Struggle in St. Louis, Missouri," Gateway Heritage 23 (2003): 30-39.
107. James Rollins, taped interview with Ernestine R. Hardge, January 6, 1989, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Timothy Bleck, "Black Liberators Represent Type of Militancy Unknown in St. Louis Before This Summer," Post-Dispatch, September 17, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Kenneth Jolly, "Reaction to Liberation: Official Response to the Black Liberation Struggle in St. Louis, Missouri," Gateway Heritage 23 (2003): 30-39.
108. James Rollins, taped interview with Ernestine R. Hardge, January 6, 1989, "Strong Seed Planted," Box 1, MHS; and Timothy Bleck, "Black Liberators Represent Type of Militancy Unknown in St. Louis Before This Summer," Post-Dispatch, September 17, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Kenneth Jolly, "Reaction to Liberation: Official Response to the Black Liberation Struggle in St. Louis, Missouri," Gateway Heritage 23 (2003): 30-39.
109. "New Negro Group Presents 15 Demands to Cervantes,"Post- Dispatch, May 2, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Robert S. Lecky and H. Elliott Wright, eds., Black Manifesto: Religion, Racism and Reparations (New York, 1969); and George Morrison, "Negro Leaders Condemn Confrontations at Churches," Globe-Democrat, June 10, 1969, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS.
110. "New Negro Group Presents 15 Demands to Cervantes,"Post- Dispatch, May 2, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Robert S. Lecky and H. Elliott Wright, eds., Black Manifesto: Religion, Racism and Reparations (New York, 1969); and George Morrison, "Negro Leaders Condemn Confrontations at Churches," Globe-Democrat, June 10, 1969, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS.
111. "New Negro Group Presents 15 Demands to Cervantes,"Post- Dispatch, May 2, 1968, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Robert S. Lecky and H. Elliott Wright, eds., Black Manifesto: Religion, Racism and Reparations (New York, 1969); and George Morrison, "Negro Leaders Condemn Confrontations at Churches," Globe-Democrat, June 10, 1969, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS.
112. "2 Members of ACTION Arrested at Church," Globe-Democrat, August 24, 1970; "Black Protest at Church," Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1970; "Incident At Church," Globe-Democrat, September 21, 1970; and "ACTION Disrupts Mass," Post-Dispatch, Nov. 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Robin D.G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, 2002), 123.
113. "2 Members of ACTION Arrested at Church," Globe-Democrat, August 24, 1970; "Black Protest at Church," Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1970; "Incident At Church," Globe-Democrat, September 21, 1970; and "ACTION Disrupts Mass," Post-Dispatch, Nov. 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Robin D.G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, 2002), 123.
114. "2 Members of ACTION Arrested at Church," Globe-Democrat, August 24, 1970; "Black Protest at Church," Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1970; "Incident At Church," Globe-Democrat, September 21, 1970; and "ACTION Disrupts Mass," Post-Dispatch, Nov. 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Robin D.G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, 2002), 123.
115. "2 Members of ACTION Arrested at Church," Globe-Democrat, August 24, 1970; "Black Protest at Church," Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1970; "Incident At Church," Globe-Democrat, September 21, 1970; and "ACTION Disrupts Mass," Post-Dispatch, Nov. 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Robin D.G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, 2002), 123.
116. "2 Members of ACTION Arrested at Church," Globe-Democrat, August 24, 1970; "Black Protest at Church," Post-Dispatch, September 14, 1970; "Incident At Church," Globe-Democrat, September 21, 1970; and "ACTION Disrupts Mass," Post-Dispatch, Nov. 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Robin D.G. Kelley, Freedom Dreams: The Black Radical Imagination (Boston, 2002), 123.
117. Testimony of Mr. Mango Ali, Mr. Ernest Dean, Mr. Percy Green, and Mr. Eugene Hamilton, Hearing Before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, St. Louis, Missouri, January 14-17, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 106; Tommy Robertson, "Rope Trick By ACTION Unveils The Prophet," Post-Dispatch, December 23, 1972, and "Veiled Prophet Unveiled: Post and Globe Withhold Identity," St. Louis Journalism Review, January, 1973, Percy Green Papers, WHMC.
118. Testimony of Mr. Mango Ali, Mr. Ernest Dean, Mr. Percy Green, and Mr. Eugene Hamilton, Hearing Before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, St. Louis, Missouri, January 14-17, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 106; Tommy Robertson, "Rope Trick By ACTION Unveils The Prophet," Post-Dispatch, December 23, 1972, and "Veiled Prophet Unveiled: Post and Globe Withhold Identity," St. Louis Journalism Review, January, 1973, Percy Green Papers, WHMC.
119. Testimony of Mr. Mango Ali, Mr. Ernest Dean, Mr. Percy Green, and Mr. Eugene Hamilton, Hearing Before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, St. Louis, Missouri, January 14-17, 1970 (Washington, D.C., 1970), 106; Tommy Robertson, "Rope Trick By ACTION Unveils The Prophet," Post-Dispatch, December 23, 1972, and "Veiled Prophet Unveiled: Post and Globe Withhold Identity," St. Louis Journalism Review, January, 1973, Percy Green Papers, WHMC.
120. Gerald J. Meyer, "Percy Green's Tactic: Stir Public Outrage," Post-Dispatch, July 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Moore, "Showdown under the Arch," Gateway Heritage; and Rudolph Alexander, Jr., "A Mountain Too High: African Americans and Employment Discrimination," African American Research Perspectives 9 (2003): 33-37; and Deborah Jane Henry "Structures of Exclusion: Black Labor and the Building Trades in St. Louis, 1917-1966" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2002), 256, 264.
121. Gerald J. Meyer, "Percy Green's Tactic: Stir Public Outrage," Post-Dispatch, July 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Moore, "Showdown under the Arch," Gateway Heritage; and Rudolph Alexander, Jr., "A Mountain Too High: African Americans and Employment Discrimination," African American Research Perspectives 9 (2003): 33-37; and Deborah Jane Henry "Structures of Exclusion: Black Labor and the Building Trades in St. Louis, 1917-1966" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2002), 256, 264.
122. Gerald J. Meyer, "Percy Green's Tactic: Stir Public Outrage," Post-Dispatch, July 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Moore, "Showdown under the Arch," Gateway Heritage; and Rudolph Alexander, Jr., "A Mountain Too High: African Americans and Employment Discrimination," African American Research Perspectives 9 (2003): 33-37; and Deborah Jane Henry "Structures of Exclusion: Black Labor and the Building Trades in St. Louis, 1917-1966" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2002), 256, 264.
123. Gerald J. Meyer, "Percy Green's Tactic: Stir Public Outrage," Post-Dispatch, July 12, 1970, Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS; Moore, "Showdown under the Arch," Gateway Heritage; and Rudolph Alexander, Jr., "A Mountain Too High: African Americans and Employment Discrimination," African American Research Perspectives 9 (2003): 33-37; and Deborah Jane Henry "Structures of Exclusion: Black Labor and the Building Trades in St. Louis, 1917-1966" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Minnesota, 2002), 256, 264.
124. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
125. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
126. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
127. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
128. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
129. Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, October 29, 1968, COINTELPRO: Counter-intelligence Program of the FBI (Black Nationalist Hate Groups, File 100-448006), microfilm reel 1; Memorandum to Director, FBI from SAC, St. Louis, January 8, 1969, COINTELPRO (Black Nationalist Hate Groups), microfilm reel 2. See related news clippings in Percy Green Papers, WHMC, and the Negro Scrapbook, Vol. 3, MHS. See also Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990, revised second edition (Jackson, MS, 1991), 114-184; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Providence, Patriarchy, Pathology: Louis Farrakhan's Rise & Decline," New Politics (Winter 1997): 47-71; Jefferson Cowie, "Nixon's Class Struggle: Romancing the New Right Worker, 1969-1973," Labor History 43 (2002): 257-283; and Joshua B. Freeman, "Hardhats: Construction Workers, Manliness, and the 1970 Pro-War Demonstrations," Journal of Social History 26 (Summer 1993): 726-744.
130. Robert L. Joiner, "St. Louis Ranked 2nd Most Depressed City in New Study," Post-Dispatch, July 8, 1980, 4A; and Henry, "Structures of Excursion," 271.
131. Robert L. Joiner, "St. Louis Ranked 2nd Most Depressed City in New Study," Post-Dispatch, July 8, 1980, 4A; and Henry, "Structures of Excursion," 271.
132. Joe Holleman, "Colorful Rights Activist to Work for City," Post-Dispatch, November 10, 1993, 14A; Henry, "Structures of Exclusion," 278-79; and Theodore D. McNeal, Jr., "Where Are the Construction Jobs for African-Americans?" Post-Dispatch, January 21, 2002, B7.
133. Joe Holleman, "Colorful Rights Activist to Work for City," Post-Dispatch, November 10, 1993, 14A; Henry, "Structures of Exclusion," 278-79; and Theodore D. McNeal, Jr., "Where Are the Construction Jobs for African-Americans?" Post-Dispatch, January 21, 2002, B7.
134. Joe Holleman, "Colorful Rights Activist to Work for City," Post-Dispatch, November 10, 1993, 14A; Henry, "Structures of Exclusion," 278-79; and Theodore D. McNeal, Jr., "Where Are the Construction Jobs for African-Americans?" Post-Dispatch, January 21, 2002, B7.
135. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York, 1966); Meier and Rudwick, "The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro-American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities," in David J. Garrow, ed., We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s (Brooklyn, 1989); Louis Cantor, A Prologue to the Protest Movement: The Missouri Sharecropper Roadside Demonstration of 1939 (Durham, 1969); and Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York, 1977).
136. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York, 1966); Meier and Rudwick, "The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro-American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities," in David J. Garrow, ed., We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s (Brooklyn, 1989); Louis Cantor, A Prologue to the Protest Movement: The Missouri Sharecropper Roadside Demonstration of 1939 (Durham, 1969); and Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York, 1977).
137. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York, 1966); Meier and Rudwick, "The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro-American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities," in David J. Garrow, ed., We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s (Brooklyn, 1989); Louis Cantor, A Prologue to the Protest Movement: The Missouri Sharecropper Roadside Demonstration of 1939 (Durham, 1969); and Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York, 1977).
138. August Meier and Elliott Rudwick, From Plantation to Ghetto: An Interpretive History of American Negroes (New York, 1966); Meier and Rudwick, "The Origins of Nonviolent Direct Action in Afro-American Protest: A Note on Historical Discontinuities," in David J. Garrow, ed., We Shall Overcome: The Civil Rights Movement in the United States in the 1950s and 1960s (Brooklyn, 1989); Louis Cantor, A Prologue to the Protest Movement: The Missouri Sharecropper Roadside Demonstration of 1939 (Durham, 1969); and Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed, How They Fail (New York, 1977).
139. Julian Bond, "The Politics of Civil Rights History," in Robinson and Sullivan, eds., New Directions in Civil Rights Studies, 15.
140. Rod Bush, We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century (New York, 1999); Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill, 1999); and William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago, 1992).
141. Rod Bush, We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century (New York, 1999); Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill, 1999); and William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago, 1992).
142. Rod Bush, We Are Not What We Seem: Black Nationalism and Class Struggle in the American Century (New York, 1999); Komozi Woodard, A Nation within a Nation: Amiri Baraka (LeRoi Jones) and Black Power Politics (Chapel Hill, 1999); and William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago, 1992).
143. Charles Payne, "Debating the Civil Rights Movement: The View from the Trenches," in Steven F. Lawson and Charles Payne, Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-1968 (New York, 1998); and Peniel E. Joseph, "Black Liberation Without Apology: Reconceptualizing the Black Power Movement," The Black Scholar 31 (2001): 2-19.
144. Charles Payne, "Debating the Civil Rights Movement: The View from the Trenches," in Steven F. Lawson and Charles Payne, Debating the Civil Rights Movement, 1945-1968 (New York, 1998); and Peniel E. Joseph, "Black Liberation Without Apology: Reconceptualizing the Black Power Movement," The Black Scholar 31 (2001): 2-19.
145. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History, 541; and Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 3.
146. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power,' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle," Journal of American History, 541; and Tyson, Radio Free Dixie, 3.
147. Dean E. Robinson, Black Nationalism in American Politics and Thought (Cambridge, 2001).
148. Scott A. Sandage, "A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939-1963," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 135-167; and Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour," Souls.
149. Scott A. Sandage, "A Marble House Divided: The Lincoln Memorial, the Civil Rights Movement, and the Politics of Memory, 1939-1963," Journal of American History 80 (1993): 135-167; and Joseph, "Waiting till the Midnight Hour," Souls.
150. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971"; Rhonda Y. Williams, " 'We're tired of being treated like dogs': Poor Women and Power Politics in Baltimore," The Black Scholar 31 (2001): 31-41; and Yohuru Williams, Black Politics/White Power: Civil Rights, Black Power and the Black Panthers in New Haven (New York, 2000).
151. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971"; Rhonda Y. Williams, " 'We're tired of being treated like dogs': Poor Women and Power Politics in Baltimore," The Black Scholar 31 (2001): 31-41; and Yohuru Williams, Black Politics/White Power: Civil Rights, Black Power and the Black Panthers in New Haven (New York, 2000).
152. Countryman, "Civil Rights and Black Power in Philadelphia, 1940-1971"; Rhonda Y. Williams, " 'We're tired of being treated like dogs': Poor Women and Power Politics in Baltimore," The Black Scholar 31 (2001): 31-41; and Yohuru Williams, Black Politics/White Power: Civil Rights, Black Power and the Black Panthers in New Haven (New York, 2000).
153. Ken Leiser and Paul Hampel, "Group Demands that 35 Pet. of Jobs on Project Go to Minorities," Post-Dispatch, July 13, 1999, 1; Alvin A. Reid, "Protesters Turning on to Highway 40," American, July 15-21, 1999, 1; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, "'No Piece, No Peace': Class Contradictions in the Resurging Black Freedom Movement," The Black World Today, August 2, 1999. http://www.tbwt.com; and Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Strategies for Black Liberation in the Era of Globalism: Retronouveau Civil Rights, Militant Black Conservatism, and Radicalism," The Black Scholar (Winter 1999): 25-47.
154. Ken Leiser and Paul Hampel, "Group Demands that 35 Pet. of Jobs on Project Go to Minorities," Post-Dispatch, July 13, 1999, 1; Alvin A. Reid, "Protesters Turning on to Highway 40," American, July 15-21, 1999, 1; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, "'No Piece, No Peace': Class Contradictions in the Resurging Black Freedom Movement," The Black World Today, August 2, 1999. http://www.tbwt.com; and Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Strategies for Black Liberation in the Era of Globalism: Retronouveau Civil Rights, Militant Black Conservatism, and Radicalism," The Black Scholar (Winter 1999): 25-47.
155. Ken Leiser and Paul Hampel, "Group Demands that 35 Pet. of Jobs on Project Go to Minorities," Post-Dispatch, July 13, 1999, 1; Alvin A. Reid, "Protesters Turning on to Highway 40," American, July 15-21, 1999, 1; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, "'No Piece, No Peace': Class Contradictions in the Resurging Black Freedom Movement," The Black World Today, August 2, 1999. http://www.tbwt.com; and Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Strategies for Black Liberation in the Era of Globalism: Retronouveau Civil Rights, Militant Black Conservatism, and Radicalism," The Black Scholar (Winter 1999): 25-47.
156. Ken Leiser and Paul Hampel, "Group Demands that 35 Pet. of Jobs on Project Go to Minorities," Post-Dispatch, July 13, 1999, 1; Alvin A. Reid, "Protesters Turning on to Highway 40," American, July 15-21, 1999, 1; Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua, "'No Piece, No Peace': Class Contradictions in the Resurging Black Freedom Movement," The Black World Today, August 2, 1999. http://www.tbwt.com; and Sundiata Keita Cha-Jua and Clarence Lang, "Strategies for Black Liberation in the Era of Globalism: Retronouveau Civil Rights, Militant Black Conservatism, and Radicalism," The Black Scholar (Winter 1999): 25-47.