To plan our liberation: Black power and the politics of place in Oakland, California, 1965-1977

Journal of Urban History

Volumn 26, Issue 6, 2000, Pages 759-792

  Self, Robert ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF MICHIGAN   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

BLACK POPULATION; POLITICAL HISTORY; POLITICAL PARTICIPATION; URBAN POLITICS;

UNITED STATES;

EID: 0033794723     PISSN: 00961442     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/009614420002600603     Document Type: Article

References (154)

1. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
2. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
3. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
4. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
5. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
6. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
7. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
8. Rustin quoted in Jervis Anderson, Bayard Rustin: Troubles I've Seen (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 318. For the contours of the recent debate over black power, see Hugh Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther: Huey Newton and the Price of Black Power in America (New York: Addison-Wesley, 1994); Elaine Brown, A Taste of Power: A Black Woman's Story (New York: Pantheon, 1992); Charles E. Jones, ed., The Black Panther Party Reconsidered (Baltimore, MD: Black Classic Press, 1998); William L. Van Deburg, New Day in Babylon: The Black Power Movement and American Culture, 1965-1975 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1992); Gerald Horne, Fire This Time: The Watts Uprising and the 1960s (New York: Da Capo, 1997); Manning Marable, Race, Reform, and Rebellion: The Second Reconstruction in Black America, 1945-1990 (Jackson: University of Mississippi Press, 1991); Timothy B. Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle, "Journal of American History 85 (September 1998): 540-70.
9. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
10. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
11. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
12. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
13. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
14. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
15. Clayborne Carson, In Struggle: SNCC and the Black Awakening of the 1960s (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1981); Stokeley Carmichael, Black Power: The Politics of Liberation in America (New York: Vintage, 1992); William Van Deburg, ed., Modern Black Nationalism: From Marcus Garvey to Louis Farrakhan (New York: New York University Press, 1997). For the relationship of the War on Poverty to urban politics, see Frances Fox Piven and Richard A. Cloward, Poor People's Movements: Why They Succeed and How They Fail (New York: Pantheon, 1977); George Frederickson, ed., Neighborhood Control in the 1970s: Politics, Administration, and Citizen Participation (New York: Chandler, 1973); Susan Fainstein and Norman Fainstein, Urban Political Movements: The Search for Power by Minority Groups in American Cities (Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974); and Richard Cole, Citizen Participation in the Urban Policy Process (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1974). The trajectory of black power that I describe here may very well be an urban story that holds for southern cities as much as for northern ones. That is, rather than being a northern (or western) story, it may be an urban story. The emerging historiography on local civil rights and black power movements is inconclusive on this point as yet.
16. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
17. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
18. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
19. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
20. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
21. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
22. Analyses of the urban crisis, of course, are thick within a social science literature dating to the early 1960s. See, for instance, Edward C. Banfield, The Unheavenly City: The Nature and Future of Our Urban Crisis (Boston: Little, Brown, 1968) and Lee Rainwater and William L. Yancey, eds., The Moynihan Report and the Politics of Controversy (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1967). The standard sources for historical perspectives on the crisis that offer integrated analysis of both causes and consequences include: Thomas J. Sugrue, The Origins of the Urban Crisis: Race and Inequality in Postwar Detroit (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996); Arnold Hirsch, Making the Second Ghetto: Race and Housing in Chicago, 1940-1960 (New York: Cambridge University Press, 1983); William Julius Wilson, The Truly Disadvantaged: The Inner City, The Underclass, and Public Policy (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1987); and Michael B. Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate: Views from History (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1993). For a historicization of the postwar African American urban experience, see Kenneth L. Kusmer, "African Americans in the City Since World War II: From the Industrial to the Postindustrial Era, "in Kenneth W. Goings and Raymond A. Mohl, eds., The New African American Urban History (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1996), 320-68.
23. It is crucial that historians ground understandings of "space" in concrete social formations, places, and politics and that we clarify specifically what spatial analysis can offer to historical studies of politics, institutions, and race. Historians must avoid the fetishizing of space as an academic bon mot that elevates our work rhetorically but adds little analytically. I have tried to do that here.
24. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
25. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
26. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
27. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
28. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
29. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
30. Here I am thinking principally of Sugrue and the following: John F. Bauman, Public Housing, Race, and Renewal: Urban Planning in Philadelphia, 1920-1974 (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987); Jim Sleeper, The Closest of Strangers: Liberalism and the Politics of Race in New York (New York: Norton, 1990); Mike Davis, City of Quartz: Excavating the Future in Los Angeles (London: Verso, 1990); Steven Gregory, Black Corona: Race and the Politics of Place in an Urban Community (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1998). Neither Davis nor Gregory is a historian by training, but their works offer historians extraordinarily useful tools for understanding how to conceptualize urban geography. For critical geographic perspectives on urban social relations, see David Harvey, Justice, Nature, and the Geography of Difference (Cambridge, MA: Blackwell, 1997); Mark Gottendiener, The Social Production of Urban Space (Austin: University of Texas Press, 1985); and Henri Lefebvre, The Social Production of Space (Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell, 1991).
31. For explanations of "revolutionary intercommunalism, "see issues of The Black Panther, May-August 1972. The role of colonialism in nationalist ideologies of black liberation is explained in Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994); also see Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1968).
32. For explanations of "revolutionary intercommunalism, "see issues of The Black Panther, May-August 1972. The role of colonialism in nationalist ideologies of black liberation is explained in Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994); also see Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1968).
33. For explanations of "revolutionary intercommunalism, "see issues of The Black Panther, May-August 1972. The role of colonialism in nationalist ideologies of black liberation is explained in Michael Omi and Howard Winant, Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960s to the 1990s (New York: Routledge, 1994); also see Frantz Fanon, The Wretched of the Earth (New York: Grove, 1968).
34. Changes within the city's civil rights leadership can be followed in the pages of the California Voice, Oakland's major African American newspaper. See also C. L. Dellums, C. L. Dellums, International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Civil Rights Leader: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, 1973); West Oakland Oral History Interviews, interviews conducted by Bill Jersey and Marjorie Dobkin for the documentary film, Crossroads: The Story of West Oakland (Oakland, CA: CALTRANS, District 4, 1995); and Suzanne Stewart and Mary Praetzellis, eds., Sights and Sounds: Essays in Celebration of West Oakland (Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Academic Foundations, 1997).
35. Changes within the city's civil rights leadership can be followed in the pages of the California Voice, Oakland's major African American newspaper. See also C. L. Dellums, C. L. Dellums, International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Civil Rights Leader: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, 1973); West Oakland Oral History Interviews, interviews conducted by Bill Jersey and Marjorie Dobkin for the documentary film, Crossroads: The Story of West Oakland (Oakland, CA: CALTRANS, District 4, 1995); and Suzanne Stewart and Mary Praetzellis, eds., Sights and Sounds: Essays in Celebration of West Oakland (Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Academic Foundations, 1997).
36. Changes within the city's civil rights leadership can be followed in the pages of the California Voice, Oakland's major African American newspaper. See also C. L. Dellums, C. L. Dellums, International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Civil Rights Leader: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, 1973); West Oakland Oral History Interviews, interviews conducted by Bill Jersey and Marjorie Dobkin for the documentary film, Crossroads: The Story of West Oakland (Oakland, CA: CALTRANS, District 4, 1995); and Suzanne Stewart and Mary Praetzellis, eds., Sights and Sounds: Essays in Celebration of West Oakland (Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Academic Foundations, 1997).
37. Changes within the city's civil rights leadership can be followed in the pages of the California Voice, Oakland's major African American newspaper. See also C. L. Dellums, C. L. Dellums, International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Civil Rights Leader: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, 1973); West Oakland Oral History Interviews, interviews conducted by Bill Jersey and Marjorie Dobkin for the documentary film, Crossroads: The Story of West Oakland (Oakland, CA: CALTRANS, District 4, 1995); and Suzanne Stewart and Mary Praetzellis, eds., Sights and Sounds: Essays in Celebration of West Oakland (Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Academic Foundations, 1997).
38. Changes within the city's civil rights leadership can be followed in the pages of the California Voice, Oakland's major African American newspaper. See also C. L. Dellums, C. L. Dellums, International President of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters and Civil Rights Leader: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, The Bancroft Library, 1973); West Oakland Oral History Interviews, interviews conducted by Bill Jersey and Marjorie Dobkin for the documentary film, Crossroads: The Story of West Oakland (Oakland, CA: CALTRANS, District 4, 1995); and Suzanne Stewart and Mary Praetzellis, eds., Sights and Sounds: Essays in Celebration of West Oakland (Rohnert Park, CA: Sonoma State University Academic Foundations, 1997).
39. Author interview with Joe Johnson, August 21, 1997; author interview with Paul Cobb, August 20, 1997. For other midcentury African American communities, see Joe William Trotter Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Richard Walter Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991); Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994).
40. Author interview with Joe Johnson, August 21, 1997; author interview with Paul Cobb, August 20, 1997. For other midcentury African American communities, see Joe William Trotter Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Richard Walter Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991); Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994).
41. Author interview with Joe Johnson, August 21, 1997; author interview with Paul Cobb, August 20, 1997. For other midcentury African American communities, see Joe William Trotter Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Richard Walter Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991); Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994).
42. Author interview with Joe Johnson, August 21, 1997; author interview with Paul Cobb, August 20, 1997. For other midcentury African American communities, see Joe William Trotter Jr., Black Milwaukee: The Making of an Industrial Proletariat, 1915-1945 (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1985); Richard Walter Thomas, Life for Us Is What We Make It: Building Black Community in Detroit, 1915-1945 (Bloomington: University of Indiana Press, 1991); Quintard Taylor, The Forging of a Black Community: Seattle's Central District from 1870 through the Civil Rights Era (Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1994).
43. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
44. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
45. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
46. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
47. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
48. Oakland Chamberof Commerce, "The Natural Industrial Center of the West" (1937), "It's an Amazing New West" (1946), "How to Win the Markets of the New West" (1948), pamphlets held at the Institute of Governmental Studies, University of California, Berkeley. See also "Industrial Empire of the West, "in Oakland Tribune 1948 Yearbook (Oakland, CA: Oakland Tribune Co., 1949); William L. Nicholls and Earl R. Babbie, Oakland in Transition: A Summary of the 701 Household Survey (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1969); U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Oakland, California, May 4-6, 1967 (Washington, DC, 1967).
49. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
50. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
51. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
52. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
53. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
54. Oakland's Formula for the Future (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1957); General Neighborhood Renewal Plan Study (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, October 1958); Redevelopment in Oakland: A Part of the Master Plan (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Commission, 1949); Stephen Zwerling, Mass Transit and the Politics of Technology: A Study of BART and the San Francisco Bay Area (New York: Praeger, 1974); Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J (Oakland, CA: Board of Port Commissioners, 1970); Nicholls and Babbie, Oakland in Transition, 1-26.
55. Wilson quoted in the California Voice, March 26, 1965. On the history of Oakland's involvement with the War on Poverty, see Judith May, "Struggle for Authority: A Comparison of Four Social Change Programs in Oakland, California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1973); William L. Nicholls, Poverty and Poverty Programs in Oakland (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1967); and J. M. Regal, Oakland's Partnership for Change (Oakland, CA: City of Oakland Department of Human Resources, 1967).
56. Wilson quoted in the California Voice, March 26, 1965. On the history of Oakland's involvement with the War on Poverty, see Judith May, "Struggle for Authority: A Comparison of Four Social Change Programs in Oakland, California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1973); William L. Nicholls, Poverty and Poverty Programs in Oakland (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1967); and J. M. Regal, Oakland's Partnership for Change (Oakland, CA: City of Oakland Department of Human Resources, 1967).
57. Wilson quoted in the California Voice, March 26, 1965. On the history of Oakland's involvement with the War on Poverty, see Judith May, "Struggle for Authority: A Comparison of Four Social Change Programs in Oakland, California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1973); William L. Nicholls, Poverty and Poverty Programs in Oakland (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1967); and J. M. Regal, Oakland's Partnership for Change (Oakland, CA: City of Oakland Department of Human Resources, 1967).
58. Wilson quoted in the California Voice, March 26, 1965. On the history of Oakland's involvement with the War on Poverty, see Judith May, "Struggle for Authority: A Comparison of Four Social Change Programs in Oakland, California" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1973); William L. Nicholls, Poverty and Poverty Programs in Oakland (Berkeley, CA: Survey Research Center, 1967); and J. M. Regal, Oakland's Partnership for Change (Oakland, CA: City of Oakland Department of Human Resources, 1967).
59. Robert Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America: Class, Race, and Power in Oakland and the East Bay 1945-1977" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1998); Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Chris Rhomberg, "Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike, "Theory and Society 24 (1995): 567-94. The story of labor's 1940s political campaigns can be followed in the East Bay Labor Journal and the Labor Herald.
60. Robert Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America: Class, Race, and Power in Oakland and the East Bay 1945-1977" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1998); Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Chris Rhomberg, "Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike, "Theory and Society 24 (1995): 567-94. The story of labor's 1940s political campaigns can be followed in the East Bay Labor Journal and the Labor Herald.
61. Robert Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America: Class, Race, and Power in Oakland and the East Bay 1945-1977" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1998); Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Chris Rhomberg, "Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike, "Theory and Society 24 (1995): 567-94. The story of labor's 1940s political campaigns can be followed in the East Bay Labor Journal and the Labor Herald.
62. Robert Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America: Class, Race, and Power in Oakland and the East Bay 1945-1977" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1998); Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Chris Rhomberg, "Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike, "Theory and Society 24 (1995): 567-94. The story of labor's 1940s political campaigns can be followed in the East Bay Labor Journal and the Labor Herald.
63. Robert Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America: Class, Race, and Power in Oakland and the East Bay 1945-1977" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of Washington, 1998); Marilynn S. Johnson, The Second Gold Rush: Oakland and the East Bay in World War II (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1993); Chris Rhomberg, "Collective Actors and Urban Regimes: Class Formation and the 1946 Oakland General Strike, "Theory and Society 24 (1995): 567-94. The story of labor's 1940s political campaigns can be followed in the East Bay Labor Journal and the Labor Herald.
64. California State Employment Service, "The Economic Status of Negroes in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area, "May 1963, 1-7. I would like to thank Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo for bringing the generational differences in employment rates to my attention. For the importance of apprenticeship programs in Oakland, see Central Labor Council of Alameda County Papers, Box 69, Labor Archives and Research Center, San Francisco State University.
65. California State Employment Service, "The Economic Status of Negroes in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area, "May 1963, 1-7. I would like to thank Gretchen Lemke-Santangelo for bringing the generational differences in employment rates to my attention. For the importance of apprenticeship programs in Oakland, see Central Labor Council of Alameda County Papers, Box 69, Labor Archives and Research Center, San Francisco State University.
66. "The Economic Status of Negroes in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area, "May 1963, 1-7; Bureau of the Census, Census of Population, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 6 (Washington, DC, 1973).
67. "The Economic Status of Negroes in the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Area, "May 1963, 1-7; Bureau of the Census, Census of Population, vol. 1, Characteristics of the Population, pt. 6 (Washington, DC, 1973).
68. For population statistics on African Americans in Oakland, see Willia Bowser Gray, "Residential Patterns and Associated Socioeconomic Characteristics of Black Populations of Varying City-Suburban Locations within the San Francisco Area" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1975), 321. On the nature of pro-growth coalitions, see John H. Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983). The breakdown in relations between African Americans and trade unions in Oakland reached its peak in the mid-1960s, when fights over the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) construction jobs, job assignments within the city's largest laborers' union (Local 304 of the Hod Carrier's Union), and racism in the restaurant industry brought large-scale public protest. See Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America, "197-225.
69. For population statistics on African Americans in Oakland, see Willia
70. For population statistics on African Americans in Oakland, see Willia Bowser Gray, "Residential Patterns and Associated Socioeconomic Characteristics of Black Populations of Varying City-Suburban Locations within the San Francisco Area" (Ph.D. dissertation, University of California, Berkeley, 1975), 321. On the nature of pro-growth coalitions, see John H. Mollenkopf, The Contested City (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1983). The breakdown in relations between African Americans and trade unions in Oakland reached its peak in the mid-1960s, when fights over the Bay Area Rapid Transit (BART) construction jobs, job assignments within the city's largest laborers' union (Local 304 of the Hod Carrier's Union), and racism in the restaurant industry brought large-scale public protest. See Self, "Shifting Ground in Metropolitan America, "197-225.
71. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
72. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
73. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
74. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
75. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
76. Bobby Scale, Seize the Time: The Story of the Black Panther Party and Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1968); David Hilliard and Lewis Cole, This Side of Glory: The Autobiography of David Hilliard and the Story of the Black Panther Party (Boston: Little, Brown, 1993); Philip S. Foner, ed., Black Panthers Speak (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott, 1970); Pearson, The Shadow of the Panther; Brown, A Taste of Power; Jones, The Black Panther Party Reconsidered.
77. Author interview with Paul Cobb. Every edition of The Black Panther included the party's Ten Point Program. For an interesting account of the ways in which black nationalism filled a political "vacuum" in Los Angeles, and black nationalism's relationship to post-Watts African American politics, see Home, Fire This Time.
78. Author interview with Paul Cobb. Every edition of The Black Panther included the party's Ten Point Program. For an interesting account of the ways in which black nationalism filled a political "vacuum" in Los Angeles, and black nationalism's relationship to post-Watts African American politics, see Home, Fire This Time.
79. William Byron Rumford, William Byron Rumford, Legislator for Fair Employment, Fair Housing, and Public Health: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, the Bancroft Library, 1973), Dellums, C. L. Dellums: An Interview. In interesting ways, the career of C. L. Dellums belies the easy distinctions between civil rights and black power. Dellums is treated largely as a civil rights figure, but he understood the necessity of political power and worked all of his life to build one of the nation's most important all-black institutions, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Similarly, Byron Rumford was elected to the California Assembly from the East Bay Democratic Club run by D. G. Gibson, chief architect and strategist for African American politics in the East Bay. Although Dellums and Rumford had virtually no radical sympathies or connections, they illustrate the overlap between what historians have traditionally separated: the civil rights movement and the black power movement. This distinction has been brilliantly deconstructed for the South by Tyson in "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
80. William Byron Rumford, William Byron Rumford, Legislator for Fair Employment, Fair Housing, and Public Health: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, the Bancroft Library, 1973), Dellums, C. L. Dellums: An Interview. In interesting ways, the career of C. L. Dellums belies the easy distinctions between civil rights and black power. Dellums is treated largely as a civil rights figure, but he understood the necessity of political power and worked all of his life to build one of the nation's most important all-black institutions, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Similarly, Byron Rumford was elected to the California Assembly from the East Bay Democratic Club run by D. G. Gibson, chief architect and strategist for African American politics in the East Bay. Although Dellums and Rumford had virtually no radical sympathies or connections, they illustrate the overlap between what historians have traditionally separated: the civil rights movement and the black power movement. This distinction has been brilliantly deconstructed for the South by Tyson in "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
81. William Byron Rumford, William Byron Rumford, Legislator for Fair Employment, Fair Housing, and Public Health: An Interview (Berkeley, CA: Regional Oral History Office, the Bancroft Library, 1973), Dellums, C. L. Dellums: An Interview. In interesting ways, the career of C. L. Dellums belies the easy distinctions between civil rights and black power. Dellums is treated largely as a civil rights figure, but he understood the necessity of political power and worked all of his life to build one of the nation's most important all-black institutions, the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. Similarly, Byron Rumford was elected to the California Assembly from the East Bay Democratic Club run by D. G. Gibson, chief architect and strategist for African American politics in the East Bay. Although Dellums and Rumford had virtually no radical sympathies or connections, they illustrate the overlap between what historians have traditionally separated: the civil rights movement and the black power movement. This distinction has been brilliantly deconstructed for the South by Tyson in "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
82. On Newton's interpretation of the "lumpen proletariat, "see Heath G. Louis, ed., Off the Pigs: The History and Literature of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1976); Toni Morrison, ed., To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1972); Huey Newton, with the assistance of J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch, 1973). See also Carson, In Struggle, and Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
83. On Newton's interpretation of the "lumpen proletariat, "see Heath G. Louis, ed., Off the Pigs: The History and Literature of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1976); Toni Morrison, ed., To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1972); Huey Newton, with the assistance of J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch, 1973). See also Carson, In Struggle, and Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
84. On Newton's interpretation of the "lumpen proletariat, "see Heath G. Louis, ed., Off the Pigs: The History and Literature of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1976); Toni Morrison, ed., To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1972); Huey Newton, with the assistance of J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch, 1973). See also Carson, In Struggle, and Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
85. On Newton's interpretation of the "lumpen proletariat, "see Heath G. Louis, ed., Off the Pigs: The History and Literature of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1976); Toni Morrison, ed., To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1972); Huey Newton, with the assistance of J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch, 1973). See also Carson, In Struggle, and Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
86. On Newton's interpretation of the "lumpen proletariat, "see Heath G. Louis, ed., Off the Pigs: The History and Literature of the Black Panther Party (Metuchen, NJ: Scarecrow, 1976); Toni Morrison, ed., To Die for the People: The Writings of Huey P. Newton (New York: Random House, 1972); Huey Newton, with the assistance of J. Herman Blake, Revolutionary Suicide (New York: Harcourt, Brace, and Jovanovitch, 1973). See also Carson, In Struggle, and Tyson, "Robert F. Williams, 'Black Power, ' and the Roots of the African American Freedom Struggle."
87. The statistics on party members killed and arrested come from a document penned by Charles Garry, the Party's lawyer, Dr. Huey P. Newton, M864, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University (hereafter Newton Collection, Stanford), Series 2, Box 15, Folder 5. For the party's commitment to politics, see any issue of The Black Panther, June-December 1972. See also the party's political files, Newton Collection, Stanford, Series 2, Boxes 41 and 46.
88. The statistics on party members killed and arrested come from a document penned by Charles Garry, the Party's lawyer, Dr. Huey P. Newton, M864, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University (hereafter Newton Collection, Stanford), Series 2, Box 15, Folder 5. For the party's commitment to politics, see any issue of The Black Panther, June-December 1972. See also the party's political files, Newton Collection, Stanford, Series 2, Boxes 41 and 46.
89. The statistics on party members killed and arrested come from a document penned by Charles Garry, the Party's lawyer, Dr. Huey P. Newton, M864, Department of Special Collections, Stanford University (hereafter Newton Collection, Stanford), Series 2, Box 15, Folder 5. For the party's commitment to politics, see any issue of The Black Panther, June-December 1972. See also the party's political files, Newton Collection, Stanford, Series 2, Boxes 41 and 46.
90. The Black Panther, July 29 and August 5, 1972. For connections to the Democratic Party, see Newton Collection, Series 2, Box 54.
91. The Black Panther, July 29 and August 5, 1972. For connections to the Democratic Party, see Newton Collection, Series 2, Box 54.
92. The Back Panther, August 5; September 16, 23, 30; October 14 and 28; November 30; December 16, 1972; and January 13, 1973.
93. The Black Panther, September 9, 1972. On the Port of Oakland's relationship to the city and the region's political economy, see David J. Olson, "Public Port Accountability: A Framework for Evaluation, "in Marc J. Hershman, ed., Urban Ports and Harbor Management: Responding to Change Along U.S. Waterfronts (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1988), 307-33; and Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J.
94. The Black Panther, September 9, 1972. On the Port of Oakland's relationship to the city and the region's political economy, see David J. Olson, "Public Port Accountability: A Framework for Evaluation, "in Marc J. Hershman, ed., Urban Ports and Harbor Management: Responding to Change Along U.S. Waterfronts (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1988), 307-33; and Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J.
95. The Black Panther, September 9, 1972. On the Port of Oakland's relationship to the city and the region's political economy, see David J. Olson, "Public Port Accountability: A Framework for Evaluation, "in Marc J. Hershman, ed., Urban Ports and Harbor Management: Responding to Change Along U.S. Waterfronts (New York: Taylor and Francis, 1988), 307-33; and Port of Oakland 1957 Revenue Bonds, $8, 500, 000 Series J.
96. The Black Panther, September 9, 1972. The party's analysis of the Port of Oakland as a colonial war machine subsidized by the federal military did not reflect how the Port actually developed in the 1960s. During that decade, the Port aggressively sold public bonds and pursued federal funding through the Economic Development Administration and other nonmilitary government agencies. In fact, the party's military-colonial analysis of the Port would have described another California city, San Diego, far more accurately. There, civic boosters and the local Chamber of Commerce linked the future of the port and the entire city so completely with the U.S. Navy that the federal military built or subsidized virtually all harbor/port-related infrastructure. See Roger Lotchin, "The City and the Sword through the Ages and the Era of the Cold War, "in Robert A. Fairbanks and Kathleen Underwood, eds., Essays on Sunbelt Cities and Recent Urban America (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1990), 87-124.
97. The Black Panther, September 9, 1972. The party's analysis of the Port of Oakland as a colonial war machine subsidized by the federal military did not reflect how the Port actually developed in the 1960s. During that decade, the Port aggressively sold public bonds and pursued federal funding through the Economic Development Administration and other nonmilitary government agencies. In fact, the party's military-colonial analysis of the Port would have described another California city, San Diego, far more accurately. There, civic boosters and the local Chamber of Commerce linked the future of the port and the entire city so completely with the U.S. Navy that the federal military built or subsidized virtually all harbor/port-related infrastructure. See Roger Lotchin, "The City and the Sword through the Ages and the Era of the Cold War, "in Robert A. Fairbanks and Kathleen Underwood, eds., Essays on Sunbelt Cities and Recent Urban America (College Station: Texas A&M University Press, 1990), 87-124.
98. The Black Panther, December 23, 1972; January 20 and 27, 1973.
99. Mayor John Reading quoted in U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Operations, Hearings: Federal Role in Urban Affairs, August 24-26, 1966, pt. 4, 840.
100. McCullum quoted in U.S. Commission on Civil Rights, Hearings before the United States Commission on Civil Rights, 451, 455-56.
101. The Skills Center was funded through the Manpower Development and Training Act. See the Oakland Tribune, December 18, 1965, 11, and the California Voice December 31, 1965, 17. Don McCullum, who in 1965 was chairman of the Adult Minority Employment Project in Oakland, worked closely with the Skills Center and was involved in the negotiations with both the Building Trades Council and the Alameda County Central Labor Council about the extent of union cooperation in managing the center's training programs and helping to place center graduates. For the Redevelopment Agency's study of federal programs in Oakland, see U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Operations, Hearings: Federal Role in Urban Affairs.
102. The Skills Center was funded through the Manpower Development and Training Act. See the Oakland Tribune, December 18, 1965, 11, and the California Voice December 31, 1965, 17. Don McCullum, who in 1965 was chairman of the Adult Minority Employment Project in Oakland, worked closely with the Skills Center and was involved in the negotiations with both the Building Trades Council and the Alameda County Central Labor Council about the extent of union cooperation in managing the center's training programs and helping to place center graduates. For the Redevelopment Agency's study of federal programs in Oakland, see U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Operations, Hearings: Federal Role in Urban Affairs.
103. The Skills Center was funded through the Manpower Development and Training Act. See the Oakland Tribune, December 18, 1965, 11, and the California Voice December 31, 1965, 17. Don McCullum, who in 1965 was chairman of the Adult Minority Employment Project in Oakland, worked closely with the Skills Center and was involved in the negotiations with both the Building Trades Council and the Alameda County Central Labor Council about the extent of union cooperation in managing the center's training programs and helping to place center graduates. For the Redevelopment Agency's study of federal programs in Oakland, see U.S. Senate, Committee on Governmental Operations, Hearings: Federal Role in Urban Affairs.
104. Louise Resnikoff, "The EDA in Oakland: An Evaluation" (Berkeley: University of California Oakland Project, 1969, mimeographed); Amory Bradford, Oakland's Not for Burning (New York: D. McKay, 1968), 3-21; Wall Street Journal, January 5, April 25, 1966; Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
105. Louise Resnikoff, "The EDA in Oakland: An Evaluation" (Berkeley: University of California Oakland Project, 1969, mimeographed); Amory Bradford, Oakland's Not for Burning (New York: D. McKay, 1968), 3-21; Wall Street Journal, January 5, April 25, 1966; Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
106. Louise Resnikoff, "The EDA in Oakland: An Evaluation" (Berkeley: University of California Oakland Project, 1969, mimeographed); Amory Bradford, Oakland's Not for Burning (New York: D. McKay, 1968), 3-21; Wall Street Journal, January 5, April 25, 1966; Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
107. Louise Resnikoff, "The EDA in Oakland: An Evaluation" (Berkeley: University of California Oakland Project, 1969, mimeographed); Amory Bradford, Oakland's Not for Burning (New York: D. McKay, 1968), 3-21; Wall Street Journal, January 5, April 25, 1966; Jeffrey Pressman and Aaron Wildavsky, Implementation: How Great Expectations in Washington Are Dashed in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1973).
108. Pressman and Wildavsky, Implementation, 68. See also Jeffrey Pressman, Federal Programs and City Politics: The Dynamics of the Aid Process in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
109. Pressman and Wildavsky, Implementation, 68. See also Jeffrey Pressman, Federal Programs and City Politics: The Dynamics of the Aid Process in Oakland (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975).
110. Moore and McCullum quoted in the Oakland Tribune, March 28, 1968.
111. The Oakland Economic Development Council (OEDC) dynamics are chronicled in May, "Struggle for Authority." See also Oakland Tribune, June 9, August 23, and October 19 and 29, 1967; and January 29 and 30, and October 29, 1968; Judith May, "Little Summit Conference Sponsored by the NAACP, "unpublished report, August 17, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, Institute of Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter IGS).
112. The Oakland Economic Development Council (OEDC) dynamics are chronicled in May, "Struggle for Authority." See also Oakland Tribune, June 9, August 23, and October 19 and 29, 1967; and January 29 and 30, and October 29, 1968; Judith May, "Little Summit Conference Sponsored by the NAACP, "unpublished report, August 17, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, Institute of Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter IGS).
113. The Oakland Economic Development Council (OEDC) dynamics are chronicled in May, "Struggle for Authority." See also Oakland Tribune, June 9, August 23, and October 19 and 29, 1967; and January 29 and 30, and October 29, 1968; Judith May, "Little Summit Conference Sponsored by the NAACP, "unpublished report, August 17, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, Institute of Governmental Studies Library, University of California, Berkeley (hereafter IGS).
114. May, "Struggle for Authority, "311-20, 335-40. This is really a shorthand for the complicated internal politics in Oakland's War on Poverty, politics that reflected broader divisions among African Americans about strategies for addressing the city's racial and economic problems. It is important to recognize, for instance, that middle-class and professional black activists, operating principally through the East Bay Democratic Club, the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), and the Men of Tomorrow, a prominent civic organization, continued to advance a moderate, integration-oriented agenda throughout this period. Indeed, Lionel Wilson's victory in the mayoral election of 1977 may be counted a triumph for this more moderate group as much as for the city's black power advocates and grassroots activists.
115. Oakland Tribune, January 29 and 30; March 28, 1968.
116. Oakland Tribune, March 28, 1968; September 24, 1970.
117. "Discover Oakland - The Friendly City" (Oakland, CA: Oakland Economic Development Council, 1970); Oakland Tribune, August 11, 1970. "Discover Oakland" used quotations from Jack London, Oakland's famous rebel-son, placed against contemporary photographs and accounts of the city's politics and economic development. The London passage that opened the booklet delivered the Oakland Economic Development Council Incorporated's (OEDCI) guiding metaphor: "And they enslave you over and again - but not frankly, as the true noble men would do with weight of their right arms, but secretly, by spidery machinations and by wheeling and cajoling and lies." The Tribune called it an "outsized, artistic political propaganda booklet."
118. "Discover Oakland - The Friendly City" (Oakland, CA: Oakland Economic Development Council, 1970); Oakland Tribune, August 11, 1970. "Discover Oakland" used quotations from Jack London, Oakland's famous rebel-son, placed against contemporary photographs and accounts of the city's politics and economic development. The London passage that opened the booklet delivered the Oakland Economic Development Council Incorporated's (OEDCI) guiding metaphor: "And they enslave you over and again - but not frankly, as the true noble men would do with weight of their right arms, but secretly, by spidery machinations and by wheeling and cajoling and lies." The Tribune called it an "outsized, artistic political propaganda booklet."
119. Oakland Tribune, January 10, March 22, April 13, 1971; Pressman, Federal Programs and City Politics, 65. Wilson's and McCullum's split with Moore was an important feature of these debates about the pace, rhetoric, and style of black politics in Oakland. Moore thoroughly alienated Wilson, the longtime chairman of the OEDCI, when the former attempted to move his community jobs programs through the council without sufficient input from the poverty board. Similarly, McCullum broke with Moore when the latter's rhetoric and machinations threatened to destroy, as they ultimately did, the poverty program as a whole. With Moore nearly universally discredited, in both white and African American communities, McCullum and Wilson emerged with their political reputations largely intact.
120. Oakland Tribune, January 10, March 22, April 13, 1971; Pressman, Federal Programs and City Politics, 65. Wilson's and McCullum's split with Moore was an important feature of these debates about the pace, rhetoric, and style of black politics in Oakland. Moore thoroughly alienated Wilson, the longtime chairman of the OEDCI, when the former attempted to move his community jobs programs through the council without sufficient input from the poverty board. Similarly, McCullum broke with Moore when the latter's rhetoric and machinations threatened to destroy, as they ultimately did, the poverty program as a whole. With Moore nearly universally discredited, in both white and African American communities, McCullum and Wilson emerged with their political reputations largely intact.
121. "Special Meeting of the OEDC to Consider the Model Cities Application, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 30, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; Model Cities Proposal (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, 1967); June Manning Thomas, "Model Cities Revisited: Issues of Race and Empowerment, "in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 143-66; Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1975).
122. "Special Meeting of the OEDC to Consider the Model Cities Application, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 30, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; Model Cities Proposal (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, 1967); June Manning Thomas, "Model Cities Revisited: Issues of Race and Empowerment, "in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 143-66; Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1975).
123. "Special Meeting of the OEDC to Consider the Model Cities Application, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 30, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; Model Cities Proposal (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, 1967); June Manning Thomas, "Model Cities Revisited: Issues of Race and Empowerment, "in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 143-66; Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1975).
124. "Special Meeting of the OEDC to Consider the Model Cities Application, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 30, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; Model Cities Proposal (Oakland, CA: Oakland City Planning Department, 1967); June Manning Thomas, "Model Cities Revisited: Issues of Race and Empowerment, "in June Manning Thomas and Marsha Ritzdorf, eds., Urban Planning and the African American Community: In the Shadows (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 1997), 143-66; Bernard J. Frieden and Marshall Kaplan, The Politics of Neglect: Urban Aid from Model Cities to Revenue Sharing (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1975).
125. Model Cities Proposal, 13-9; interview with Paul Cobb; Judith May, "Meetings of the Model Cities Task Force of the OEDC, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 27, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS.
126. Model Cities Proposal, 13-9; interview with Paul Cobb; Judith May, "Meetings of the Model Cities Task Force of the OEDC, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 27, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS.
127. Model Cities Proposal, 13-9; interview with Paul Cobb; Judith May, "Meetings of the Model Cities Task Force of the OEDC, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 27, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS.
128. Model Cities Proposal, 13-9; interview with Paul Cobb; Judith May, "Meetings of the Model Cities Task Force of the OEDC, "unpublished meeting minutes, March 27, 1967, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS.
129. "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 24, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 25 and 26, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "City Center: Linking Federal Programs for Job Opportunities and Economic Development" (Oakland, CA: Redevelopment Agency of the City of Oakland, May 1967); Oakland Post, February 14, 1968.
130. "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 24, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 25 and 26, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "City Center: Linking Federal Programs for Job Opportunities and Economic Development" (Oakland, CA: Redevelopment Agency of the City of Oakland, May 1967); Oakland Post, February 14, 1968.
131. "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 24, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 25 and 26, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "City Center: Linking Federal Programs for Job Opportunities and Economic Development" (Oakland, CA: Redevelopment Agency of the City of Oakland, May 1967); Oakland Post, February 14, 1968.
132. "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 24, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 25 and 26, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "City Center: Linking Federal Programs for Job Opportunities and Economic Development" (Oakland, CA: Redevelopment Agency of the City of Oakland, May 1967); Oakland Post, February 14, 1968.
133. "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 24, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, April 25 and 26, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS; "City Center: Linking Federal Programs for Job Opportunities and Economic Development" (Oakland, CA: Redevelopment Agency of the City of Oakland, May 1967); Oakland Post, February 14, 1968.
134. West Oakland Planning Committee (WOPC) memo quoted in May, "Model Cities, "unpublished meeting minutes and notes, February 27-April 23, 1968, Oakland Project Interviews, IGS.
135. Oakland Tribune, June 20 and July 2 and 3, 1968.
136. This is not, by any means, a thorough catalogue of reasons for the War on Poverty's failure. Such a thorough evaluation is an endeavor of great magnitude, beyond the scope of this article. For a broader discussion of the limitations of the War on Poverty from a variety of perspectives, see Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Thomas F. Jackson, "The State, the Movement, the Poor: The War on Poverty and Political Mobilization in the 1960s, "in Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate, 403-39; Sheldon H. Danziger and Daniel H. Weinberg, eds., Fighting Poverty: What Works and What Doesn't (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).
137. This is not, by any means, a thorough catalogue of reasons for the War on Poverty's failure. Such a thorough evaluation is an endeavor of great magnitude, beyond the scope of this article. For a broader discussion of the limitations of the War on Poverty from a variety of perspectives, see Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Thomas F. Jackson, "The State, the Movement, the Poor: The War on Poverty and Political Mobilization in the 1960s, "in Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate, 403-39; Sheldon H. Danziger and Daniel H. Weinberg, eds., Fighting Poverty: What Works and What Doesn't (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).
138. This is not, by any means, a thorough catalogue of reasons for the War on Poverty's failure. Such a thorough evaluation is an endeavor of great magnitude, beyond the scope of this article. For a broader discussion of the limitations of the War on Poverty from a variety of perspectives, see Gareth Davies, From Opportunity to Entitlement: The Transformation and Decline of Great Society Liberalism (Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1996); Thomas F. Jackson, "The State, the Movement, the Poor: The War on Poverty and Political Mobilization in the 1960s, "in Katz, ed., The "Underclass" Debate, 403-39; Sheldon H. Danziger and Daniel H. Weinberg, eds., Fighting Poverty: What Works and What Doesn't (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1986).
139. Oakland Tribune, June 21, 1968, January 31, April 18, 1971; California Voice, December 18, 1970; People's World, April 17, 1971.
140. Oakland Tribune, June 21, 1968, January 31, April 18, 1971; California Voice, December 18, 1970; People's World, April 17, 1971.
141. Oakland Tribune, June 21, 1968, January 31, April 18, 1971; California Voice, December 18, 1970; People's World, April 17, 1971.
142. The Black Panther, January 20 and 27, February 3, and March 10 and 31, 1973.
143. The Black Panther, September 2 and 30, 1972.
144. Paul Jargowsky and Mary Jo Bane, "Ghetto Poverty in the United States, "in Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1991); Joe T. Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
145. Paul Jargowsky and Mary Jo Bane, "Ghetto Poverty in the United States, "in Christopher Jencks and Paul Peterson, eds., The Urban Underclass (Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1991); Joe T. Darden, Richard Child Hill, June Thomas, and Richard Thomas, Detroit: Race and Uneven Development (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1987).
146. On Brown's involvement in Oakland politics, see California Voice, February 28, 1974; The Black Panther, November 30, December 28, 1974; Brown, A Taste of Power. See also Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, "'The Most Qualified Person to Handle the Job': Black Panther Party Women, 1966-1982, "in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 305-34.
147. On Brown's involvement in Oakland politics, see California Voice, February 28, 1974; The Black Panther, November 30, December 28, 1974; Brown, A Taste of Power. See also Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, "'The Most Qualified Person to Handle the Job': Black Panther Party Women, 1966-1982, "in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 305-34.
148. On Brown's involvement in Oakland politics, see California Voice, February 28, 1974; The Black Panther, November 30, December 28, 1974; Brown, A Taste of Power. See also Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, "'The Most Qualified Person to Handle the Job': Black Panther Party Women, 1966-1982, "in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 305-34.
149. On Brown's involvement in Oakland politics, see California Voice, February 28, 1974; The Black Panther, November 30, December 28, 1974; Brown, A Taste of Power. See also Angela D. LeBlanc-Ernest, "'The Most Qualified Person to Handle the Job': Black Panther Party Women, 1966-1982, "in The Black Panther Party Reconsidered, 305-34.
150. The Black Panther, January 15, March 12, 1977; Montclarion, April 13, 1977; California Voice, March 26, April 16, 1977; Oakland Post, April 176, 1977.
151. The Black Panther, January 15, March 12, 1977; Montclarion, April 13, 1977; California Voice, March 26, April 16, 1977; Oakland Post, April 176, 1977.
152. The Black Panther, January 15, March 12, 1977; Montclarion, April 13, 1977; California Voice, March 26, April 16, 1977; Oakland Post, April 176, 1977.
153. The Black Panther, January 15, March 12, 1977; Montclarion, April 13, 1977; California Voice, March 26, April 16, 1977; Oakland Post, April 176, 1977.
154. Critics of Oakland's African American leadership in the Wilson era and afterward have suggested that this emphasis on rebuilding a strong black working and middle class evolved quickly into a kind of bourgeois nationalism in which actual economic redistribution occupied a successively lower and lower position within the city's priorities. Assessing the validity of those arguments is the task of another history. However, it is worth noting that Wilson and his successor, Elihu Harris, encountered enormous obstacles in the form of even greater deindustrialization in the East Bay after 1977 and the crack cocaine epidemic of the 1980s.