Leprosy

Lancet

Volumn 363, Issue 9416, 2004, Pages 1209-1219

  Britton, Warwick J ^a,c   Lockwood, Diana N J ^b  

^a UNIVERSITY OF SYDNEY   (Australia)

^b HOSPITAL FOR TROPICAL DISEASES   (United Kingdom)

^c CENTENARY INSTITUTE   (Australia)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

AZATHIOPRINE; BCG VACCINE; CLARITHROMYCIN; CLOFAZIMINE; CORTICOSTEROID; DAPSONE; MINOCYCLINE; OFLOXACIN; PEFLOXACIN; PENTOXIFYLLINE; PREDNISOLONE; QUINOLINE DERIVED ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; RIFAMPICIN; THALIDOMIDE;

ACID FAST BACTERIUM; AMYLOIDOSIS; ANTIBIOTIC RESISTANCE; ANTIBIOTIC THERAPY; ANTIBODY RESPONSE; AZOOSPERMIA; BACTERIAL GROWTH; BLINDNESS; BORDERLINE LEPROSY; CELLULAR IMMUNITY; CHROMOSOME 10; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONFERENCE PAPER; DNA POLYMORPHISM; DRUG COST; DRUG POTENCY; DRUG SENSITIVITY; ERYTHEMA NODOSUM LEPROSUM; GENE REPLICATION; GENE SEQUENCE; GENETIC VARIABILITY; GYNECOMASTIA; HISTOPATHOLOGY; HLA SYSTEM; HUMAN; HYPESTHESIA; INCIDENCE; INFECTION CONTROL; KIDNEY DISEASE; LAGOPHTHALMOS; LEPROMATOUS LEPROSY; LEPROSY; MAJOR HISTOCOMPATIBILITY COMPLEX; MISSENSE MUTATION; MULTIBACILLARY LEPROSY; MYCOBACTERIUM LEPRAE; NERVE INJURY; NEURITIS; NEUROPATHY; PATIENT EDUCATION; PAUCIBACILLARY LEPROSY; PHOCOMELIA; POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RELAPSE; SENSORY DYSFUNCTION; SERODIAGNOSIS; SKIN DEFECT; SKIN DISCOLORATION; SKIN DISEASE; SKIN TEST; SOCIOECONOMICS; T LYMPHOCYTE; TUBERCULOID LEPROSY;

EID: 1842686127     PISSN: 01406736     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(04)15952-7     Document Type: Conference Paper

References (142)

1. WHO. Expert Committee on Leprosy, 7th Report, 1998: 1-43.
2. WHO. Leprosy global situation. Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 77:2002;1-8.
3. World Health Assembly. Leprosy resolution WHA 44.9, Forty-fourth World Health Assembly, May 13, 1991.
4. Report of the International Leprosy Association Technical Forum. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis 2002; 70 (suppl): S1-S62.
5. Lockwood D.N. Leprosy elimination: a virtual phenomenon or a reality? BMJ. 324:2002;1516-1518.
6. WHO. Chemotherapy of leprosy for control programmes. World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 675:1982;1-33.
7. Shepard C.C. Experimental leprosy. Hastings R.C. Leprosy. 1985;269-342 Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
8. WHO. http://www.who.int/lep/ (accessed Jan 13, 2004).
9. Durrheim D.N., Fourie A., Balt E., et al. Leprosy in Mpumalanga Province, South Africa: eliminated or hidden. Lepr Rev. 73:2002;326-333.
10. Bakker M.I., Hatta M., Kwenang A., Klatser P.R., Oskam L. Epidemiology of leprosy on five isolated islands in the Flores Sea, Indonesia. Trop Med Int Health. 7:2002;780-787.
11. Baumgart K.W., Britton W.J., Mullins R.J., Basten A., Barnetson RSC. Subclinical infection with Mycobacterium leprae: a problem for leprosy control strategies. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 87:1993;412-415.
12. WHO. Report on the third meeting of the WHO Technical Advisory Group on the elimination of leprosy. Geneva, WHO: 2002, WHO/CDS/CPE/CEE/2002.29.
13. Smith WCS. We need to know what is happening to the incidence of leprosy. Lepr Rev. 68:1997;165-172.
14. Ridley D.S., Jopling W.H. Classification of leprosy according to immunity: a five group system. Int J Lepr. 34:1966;255-273.
15. Noordeen SK. The epidemiology of leprosy. In: Hastings RC, ed. Leprosy, 2nd edn. Edinburgh: Churchill-Livingstone, 1994: 29-48.
16. Peters ES, Eshiet AL. Male-female (sex) differences in leprosy patients in south eastern Nigeria: females present late for diagnosis and treatment and have higher rates of deformity. Lepr Rev 2002; 73: 262-267.
17. Hatta M., van Beers S.M., Madjid B., Djumadi A., de Wit M.Y., Klatser P.R. Distribution and persistence of Mycobacterium leprae nasal carriage among a population in which leprosy is endemic in Indonesia. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg. 89:1995;381-385.
18. Ramaprasad P., Fernando A., Madhale S., et al. Transmission and protection in leprosy: indications of the role of mucosal immunity. Lepr Rev. 68:1997;301-315.
19. Godal T., Negassi K. Subclinical infection in leprosy. BMJ. 3:1973;557-559.
20. van Beers S.M., Hatta M., Klatser P.R. Patient contact is the major determinant in incident leprosy: implications for future control. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 67:1999;119-128.
21. Smith C.M., Smith W.C. Chemoprophylaxis is effective in the prevention of leprosy in endemic countries: a systematic review and meta-analysis. J Infect. 41:2000;137-142.
22. Lucas S.B. Human immunodeficiency virus and leprosy. Lepr Rev. 64:1993;97-103.
23. Kawuma H.J., Bwire R., Adatu-Engwau F. Leprosy and infection with the human immunodeficiency virus in Uganda; a case-control study. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 62:1994;521-526.
24. Lienhardt C., Kamate B., Jamet P., et al. Effect of HIV infection on leprosy: a three-year survey in Bamako, Mali. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 64:1996;383-391.
25. Sekar B., Jayasheela M., Chattopadhya D., et al. Prevalence of HIV infection and high-risk characteristics among leprosy patients of south India; a case-control study. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 62:1994;527-531.
26. Sampaio E.P., Caneshi J.R., Nery J.A., et al. Cellular immune response to Mycobacterium leprae infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals. Infect Immun. 63:1995;1848-1854.
27. Lawn S.D., Wood C., Lockwood D.N. Borderline tuberculoid leprosy: an immune reconstitution phenomenon in a human immunodeficiency virus-infected person. Clin Infect Dis. 36:2003;5-6.
28. Cole S.T., Eiglmeier K., Parkhill J., et al. Massive gene decay in the leprosy bacillus. Nature. 409:2001;1007-1011.
29. Shepard C.C. The experimental disease that follows the injection of the human leprosy bacilli into the footpads of mice. J Exp Med. 112:1960;445-451.
30. Kirchheimer W.F., Storrs E.E. Attempts to establish the armadillo (Dasypus novemcinctus) as a model for the study of leprosy: I, report of lepromatoid leprosy in an experimentally infected armadillo. Int J Lepr. 39:1971;693-701.
31. Brennan P.J., Vissa V.D. Genomic evidence for the retention of the essential mycobacterial cell wall in the otherwise defective Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr Rev. 72:2001;415-428.
32. Young D.B. Prospects for molecular epidemiology of leprosy. Lepr Rev. 74:2003;11-17.
33. Shin Y.C., Lee H., Walsh G.P., Kim J.D., Cho S.N. Variable numbers of TTC repeats in Mycobacterium leprae DNA from leprosy patients and use in strain differentiation. J Clin Microbiol. 38:2000;4535-4538.
34. Matsuoka M., Maeda S., Kai M., et al. Mycobacterium leprae typing by genomic diversity and global distribution of genotypes. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 68:2000;121-128.
35. Cho S-N, Yanagihara D.L., Hunter S.W., Gelber P.H., Brennan P.J. Serological specificity of phenolic glycolipid I from Mycobacterium leprae and use in serodiagnosis of leprosy. Infect Immun. 41:1983;1077-1083.
36. Roche P.W., Britton W.J., Neupane K.D., Failbus S.S., Cho S-N, Theuvenet W.J. The response to chemotherapy of serum Mycobacterium leprae-specific antigen in multibacillary leprosy patients. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 44:1991;702-708.
37. Cho S.N., Cellona R.V., Villahermosa L.G., et al. Detection of phenolic glycolipid I of Mycobacterium leprae in sera from leprosy patients before and after start of multidrug therapy. Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 8:2001;138-142.
38. Roach T.I.A., Barton C.H., Chatterjee D., Blackwell J.M. Macrophage activation: lipoarabinomannan from avirulent and virulent strains of Mycobacterium tuberculosis differentially induces the early genes c-fos, KC, JE and tumor necrosis factor-α J Immunol. 150:1993;1886-1896.
39. Ngamying M., Sawanpanyalert P., Butraporn R., et al. Effect of vaccination with refined components of the organism on infection of mice with Mycobacterium leprae. Infect Immun. 71:2003;1596-1598.
40. Thole J.E.R., Wieles B., Clark-Curtiss J.E., Ottenhoff T.H.M., Rinke de Wit T.F. Immunological and functional characterisation of Mycobacterium leprae protein antigens: an overview. Mol Microbiol. 18:1995;791-800.
41. Thole J.E., Janson A.A., Cornelisse Y., et al. HLA-class II-associated control of antigen recognition by T cells in leprosy: a prominent role for the 30/31-kDa antigens. J Immunol. 162:1999;6912-6918.
42. Geluk A., van Meijgaarden K.E., Franken K.L., et al. Identification and characterization of the ESAT-6 homologue of Mycobacterium leprae and T-cell cross-reactivity with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Infect Immun. 70:2002;2544-2548.
43. Roche P.W., Theuvenet W.J., Britton W.J. Cellular immune responses to mycobacterial heat shock proteins in Nepali leprosy patients. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 60:1992;36-43.
44. Triccas J.A., Roche P.W., Winter N., Feng C.G., Butlin R., Britton W.J. A 35 kDa protein is a major target of the human immune response to Mycobacterium leprae. Infect Immun. 64:1996;5171-5177.
45. Triccas J.A., Roche P.W., Britton W.J. Specific serological detection of leprosy with a recombinant Mycobacterium leprae protein purified from a rapidly growing mycobacterial host. J Clin Microbiol. 36:1998;2363-2365.
46. Roche P.W., Neupane K.D., Failbus S.S., Kamath A.T., Britton W.J. Vaccination with DNA of the Mycobacterium tuberculosis 85B antigen protects the mouse footpad against infection with M leprae. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 69:2001;93-98.
47. Martin E., Roche P.W., Triccas J.A., Britton W.J. DNA encoding a single mycobacterial antigen protects against leprosy infection. Vaccine. 19:2001;1391-1396.
48. Dockrell H.M., Brahmbhatt S., Robertson B.D., et al. A postgenomic approach to identification of Mycobacterium leprae-specific peptides as T-cell reagents. Infect Immun. 68:2000;5846-5855.
49. Brennan PJ. Skin test development in leprosy: progress with first-generation skin test antigens, and an approach to the second generation. Lepr Rev 2000; 71 (suppl): S50-54.
50. Rambukkana A., Salzer J.L., Yurchenco P.D., Tuomanen E.I. Neural targeting of Mycobacterium leprae mediated by the G domain of the laminin-alpha2 chain. Cell. 88:1997;811-821.
51. Rambukkana A., Yamada H., Zanazzi G., et al. Role of alpha-dystroglycan as a Schwann cell receptor for Mycobacterium leprae. Science. 282:1998;2076-2079.
52. Ng V., Zanazzi G., Timpl R., et al. Role of the cell wall phenolic glycolipid-1 in the peripheral nerve predilection of Mycobacterium leprae. Cell. 103:2000;511-524.
53. Shimoji Y., Ng V., Matsumura K., Fischetti V.A., Rambukkana A. A 21-kDa surface protein of Mycobacterium leprae binds peripheral nerve laminin-2 and mediates Schwann cell invasion. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 96:1999;9857-9862.
54. Marques M.A., Ant nio V.L., Sarno E.N., Brennan P.J., Pessolani M.C. Binding of alpha2-laminins by pathogenic and non-pathogenic mycobacteria and adherence to Schwann cells. J Med Microbiol. 50:2001;23-28.
55. Spierings E., de Boer T., Wieles B., Adams L.B., Marani E., Ottenhoff T.H. Mycobacterium leprae-specific, HLA class II-restricted killing of human Schwann cells by CD4+ Th1 cells: a novel immunopathogenic mechanism of nerve damage in leprosy. J Immunol. 166:2001;5883-5888.
56. Britton W.J. The management of leprosy reversal reactions. Lepr Rev. 69:1998;225-234.
57. Siddiqui M.R., Clerc P., Bruns G., et al. A major susceptibility locus for leprosy in India maps to chromosome 10p13. Nat Genet. 11:2001;439-441.
58. Shaw M.A., Donaldson I.J., Collins A., et al. Association and linkage of leprosy phenotypes with HLA class II and tumour necrosis factor genes. Genes Immun. 2:2001;196-204.
59. Santos A.R., Suffys P.N., Vanderborght P.R., et al. Role of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-10 promoter gene polymorphisms in leprosy. J Infect Dis. 186:2002;1687-1691.
60. Roy S., McGuire W., Mascie-Taylor C.G., et al. Tumor necrosis factor promoter polymorphism and susceptibility to lepromatous leprosy. J Infect Dis. 176:1997;530-532.
61. Cooke G.S., Hill AVS. Genetics of susceptibility to human infectious disease. Nat Rev Genet. 2:2001;967-977.
62. Kang T.J., Chae G.T. Detection of Toll-like receptor 2 (TLR2) mutation in the lepromatous leprosy patients. FEMS Immunol Med Microbiol. 31:2001;53-58.
63. Meisner S.J., Mucklow S., Warner G., Sow S.O., Lienhardt C., Hill A.V. Association of NRAMP1 polymorphism with leprosy type but not susceptibility to leprosy per se in west Africans. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 65:2001;733-735.
64. Alcais A., Sanchez F.O., Thuc N.V., et al. Granulomatous reaction to intradermal injection of lepromin (Mitsuda reaction) is linked to the human NRAMP1 gene in Vietnamese leprosy sibships. J Infect Dis. 181:2000;302-308.
65. Britton W.J. Leprosy. Cohen J., Powerly W.G. Infectious diseases. 2nd edn :2004;1507-1513 Mosby, London.
66. Yamamura M., Wang X-H, Ohmen J.D., et al. Cytokine patterns of immunological mediated tissue damage. J Immunol. 149:1992;1470-1475.
67. Jullien D., Sieling P.A., Uyemura K., Mar N.D., Rea T.H., Modlin R.L. IL-15, an immunomodulator of T cell responses in intracellular infection. J Immunol. 158:1997;800-806.
68. Little D., Khanolkar-Young S., Coulthart A., Suneetha S., Lockwood D.N. Immunohistochemical analysis of cellular infiltrate and gamma interferon, interleukin-12, and inducible nitric oxide synthase expression in leprosy type 1 (reversal) reactions before and during prednisolone treatment. Infect Immun. 69:2001;3413-3417.
69. Sieling P.A., Wang X.H., Gately M.K., et al. IL-12 regulates T helper type 1 cytokine responses in human infectious disease. J Immunol. 153:1994;3639-3647.
70. Garcia V.E., Uyemura K., Sieling P.A., et al. IL-18 promotes type 1 cytokine production from NK cells and T cells in human intracellular infection. J Immunol. 162:1999;6114-6121.
71. Kim J., Uyemura K., Van Dyke M.K., et al. A role for IL-12 receptor expression and signal transduction in host defense in leprosy. J Immunol. 167:2001;779-786.
72. Mutis T., Kraakman E.M., Cornelisse Y.E., et al. Analysis of cytokine production by mycobacterium-reactive T cells: failure to explain Mycobacterium leprae-specific nonresponsiveness of peripheral blood T cells from lepromatous leprosy patients. J Immunol. 150:1993;4641-4651.
73. Misra N., Murtaza A., Walker B., et al. Cytokine profile of circulating T cells of leprosy patients reflects both indiscriminate and polarized T-helper subsets: T-helper phenotype is stable and uninfluenced by related antigens of Mycobacterium leprae. Immunology. 86:1995;97-103.
74. Mutis T., Cornelisse Y.E., Datema G., van den Elsen P.J., Ottenhoff T.H., de Vries R.R. Definition of a human suppressor T-cell epitope. Proc Natl Acad Sci USA. 91:1994;9456-9460.
75. Sieling P.A., Modlin R.L. Cytokine patterns at the site of mycobacterial infection. Immunobiology. 191:1994;378-387.
76. de Jong R., Janson A.A., Faber W.R., Naafs B., Ottenhoff T.H. IL-2 and IL-12 act in synergy to overcome antigen-specific T cell unresponsiveness in mycobacterial disease. J Immunol. 159:1997;786-793.
77. Nath I., Vemuri N., Reddi A.L., et al. The effect of antigen presenting cells on the cytokine profiles of stable and reactional lepromatous leprosy patients. Immunol Lett. 75:2000;69-76.
78. Garcia V.E., Sieling P.A., Gong J., et al. Single-cell cytokine analysis of gamma delta T cell responses to nonpeptide mycobacterial antigens. J Immunol. 159:1997;1328-1335.
79. Porcelli S.A., Modlin R.L. The CD1 system: antigen presenting molecules for T cell recognition of lipids and glycolipids. Annu Rev Immunol. 17:1999;297-329.
80. Sieling P.A., Jullien D., Dahlem M., et al. CD1 expression by dendritic cells in human leprosy lesions: correlation with effective host immunity. J Immunol. 162:1999;1851-1858.
81. Khanolkar-Young S., Rayment N., Brickell P.M., et al. Tumour necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) synthesis is associated with the skin and peripheral nerve pathology of leprosy reversal reactions. Clin Exp Immunol. 99:1995;196-202.
82. Manandhar R., Shrestha N., Butlin C.R., Roche P.W. High levels of inflammatory cytokines are associated with poor clinical response to steroid treatment and recurrent episodes of type 1 reactions in leprosy. Clin Exp Immunol. 128:2002;333-338.
83. Sarno E.N., Grau G.E., Vieira L.M.M., Nery J.A. Serum levels of tumour necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1β during leprosy reactional states. Clin Exp Immunol. 84:1991;103-108.
84. Lockwood DNJ. The management of erythema nodosum leprosum: current and future options. Lepr Rev. 67:1996;253-259.
85. Croft R.P., Richardus J.H., Nicholls P.G., Smith W.C. Nerve function impairment in leprosy: design, methodology, and intake status of a prospective cohort study of 2664 new leprosy cases in Bangladesh: the Bangladesh Acute Nerve Damage Study. Lepr Rev. 70:1999;140-159.
86. Saunderson P., Gebre S., Desta K., Byass P., Lockwood D.N. The pattern of leprosy-related neuropathy in the AMFES patients in Ethiopia: definitions, incidence, risk factors and outcome. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;285-308.
87. Bell-Krotoski J., Tomancik E. The repeatability of testing with Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. J Hand Surg [Am]. 12:1987;155-161.
88. Suneetha S., Arunthathi S., Chandi S., Kurian N., Chacko C.J. Histological studies in primary neuritic leprosy: changes in the apparently normal skin. Lepr Rev. 69:1998;351-357.
89. Mahajan P.M., Jogaikar D.G., Mehta J.M. A study of pure neuritic leprosy: clinical experience. Indian J Lepr. 68:1996;137-141.
90. Van Brakel W.H., de Soldenhoff R., McDougall A.C. The allocation of leprosy patients into paucibacillary and multibacillary groups for multidrug therapy, taking into account the number of body areas affected by skin, or skin and nerve lesions. Lepr Rev. 63:1992;231-246.
91. Ishikawa A., Ishikawa S., Hirakawa M. Osteoporosis, bone turnover and hypogonadism in elderly men treated with treated leprosy. Lepr Rev. 72:2001;322-329.
92. Courtright P., Daniel E., Sundarrao P.S.S., et al. Eye disease in multibacillary leprosy patients at the time of their leprosy diagnosis: findings from the Longitudinal Study of Ocular Leprosy (LOSOL) in India, the Philippines and Ethiopia. Lepr Rev. 73:2002;225-238.
93. Hogeweg M., Kiran K.U., Suneetha S. The significance of facial patches and type I reaction for the development of facial nerve damage in leprosy: a retrospective study among 1226 paucibacillary patients. Lepr Rev. 62:1991;143-149.
94. Groenen G., Saha N.G., Rashid M.A., Hamid M.A., Pattyn S.R. Classification of leprosy cases under field conditions in Bangladesh: II, reliability of clinical criteria. Lepr Rev. 66:1995;134-143.
95. Saunderson P. The epidemiology of reactions and nerve damage. Lepr Rev 2000; 71 (suppl): S106-10.
96. Saunderson P., Groenen G. Which physical signs help most in the diagnosis of leprosy? A proposal based on experience in the AMFES project, ALERT, Ethiopia. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;34-42.
97. Lockwood D.N., Reid A.J. The diagnosis of leprosy is delayed in the United Kingdom. QJM. 94:2001;207-212.
98. Croft R.P., Nicholls P.G., Steyerberg E.W., Richardus J.H., Cairns W., Smith S. A clinical prediction rule for nerve-function impairment in leprosy patients. Lancet. 355:2000;1603-1606.
99. Roche P.W., Britton W.J., Failbus S.S., Ludwig H., Theuvenet W.J., Adiga R.B. Heterogeneity of serological responses in paucibacillary leprosy: differential responses to protein and carbohydrate antigens and correlation with clinical parameters. Int J Lepr. 58:1990;319-327.
100. Williams D.L., Gillis T.P., Booth R.J., Looker D., Watson J.D. The use of a specific probe and polymerase chain reaction for the detection of Mycobacterium leprae. J Infect Dis. 162:1990;193-200.
101. Kampirapap K., Singtham N., Klatser P.R., Wiriyawipart S. DNA amplification for detection of leprosy and assessment of efficacy of leprosy chemotherapy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 66:1998;16-21.
102. Ji B.H. Drug resistance in leprosy: a review. Lepr Rev. 56:1985;265-278.
103. Soares D.J., Neupane K., Britton W.J. Relapse with multibacillary leprosy caused by rifampicin sensitive organisms following paucibacillary multi-drug therapy. Lepr Rev. 66:1995;210-213.
104. Kai M., Matsuoka M., Nakata N., et al. Diaminodiphenylsulfone resistance of Mycobacterium leprae due to mutations in the dihydropteroate synthase gene. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 177:1999;231-235.
105. Williams D.L., Spring L., Harris E., Roche P., Gillis T.P. Dihydropteroate synthase of Mycobacterium leprae and dapsone resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 44:2000;1530-1537.
106. Williams D.L., Pittman T.L., Gillis T.P., Matsuoka M., Kashiwabara Y. Simultaneous detection of Mycobacterium leprae and its susceptibility to dapsone using DNA heteroduplex analysis. J Clin Microbiol. 39:2001;2083-2088.
107. Levy L., Moon N., Murray L.P., O'Neill S.M., Gustafson L.E., Evans M.J. Studies of the mouse foot pad technic for cultivation of Mycobacterium leprae: 1, fate of inoculated organisms. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 42:1974;165-173.
108. Honore N., Cole S.T. Molecular basis of rifampicin resistance in Mycobacterium leprae. Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 37:1993;414-418.
109. Honore N., Roche P.W., Grosset J.H., Cole S.T. A method for rapid detection of rifampicin-resistant isolates of Mycobacterium leprae. Lepr Rev. 72:2001;441-448.
110. Yawalkar S.J., McDougall A.C., Languillon J., et al. Once-monthly rifampicin plus daily dapsone in initial treatment of lepromatous leprosy. Lancet. 1:1982;1199-1202.
111. Gebre S., Saunderson P., Byass P. Relapses after fixed duration multiple drug therapy: the AMFES cohort. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;325-331.
112. Boerrigter G., Ponnighaus J.M., Fine P.E., Wilson R.J. Four-year follow-up results of a WHO-recommended multiple-drug regimen in paucibacillary leprosy patients in Malawi. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 59:1991;255-261.
113. Dasananjali K., Schreuder P.A., Pirayavaraporn C. A study on the effectiveness and safety of the WHO/MDT regimen in the northeast of Thailand; a prospective study, 1984-1996. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 65:1997;28-36.
114. Jamet P., Ji B. Relapse after long-term follow up of multibacillary patients treated by WHO multidrug regimen: Marchoux Chemotherapy Study Group. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 63:1995;195-201.
115. Girdhar B.K., Girdhar A., Kumar A. Relapses in multibacillary leprosy patients: effect of length of therapy. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;144-153.
116. Ji B. Does dapsone resistance really matter in the MDT era? Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 69:2001;54-55.
117. Rea T.H. Trials of daily, long-term minocycline and rifampin or clarithromycin and rifampin in the treatment of borderline lepromatous and lepromatous leprosy. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 68:2000;129-135.
118. Fleming C.J., Hunt M.J., Salisbury E.L., McCarthy S.W., Barnetson R.S. Minocycline-induced hyperpigmentation in leprosy. Br J Dermatol. 134:1996;784-787.
119. Lockwood D.N. Rifampicin/minocycline and ofloxacin (ROM) for single lesions: what is the evidence? Lepr Rev. 68:1997;299-300.
120. Villahermosa L., Fajardo T., Abalos R., et al. Parallel assessment of 24 monthly doses of rifampicin, ofloxacin and minocycline (ROM) versus 2 year WHO multidrug therapy (MDT) in multi-bacillary leprosy. Am J Trop Med Hyg. 70:2004;197-200.
121. Van Brakel WH. Peripheral neuropathy in leprosy and its consequences. Lepr Rev 2000; 71 (suppl): S146-53.
122. Croft R.P., Nicholls P.G., Richardus J.H., Smith W.C. Incidence rates of acute nerve function impairment in leprosy: a prospective cohort analysis after 24 months. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;18-33.
123. Kiran K.U., Hogeweg M., Suneetha S. Treatment of recent facial nerve damage with lagophthalmos, using a semistandardized steroid regimen. Lepr Rev. 62:1991;150-154.
124. Smith WCS. Review of current research in the prevention of nerve damage in leprosy. Lepr Rev. 71S:2000;138-145.
125. Anderson AM, van Brakel WH, Withington SG, et al. Prophylactic steroids to prevent nerve function impairment in leprosy: a randomised controlled trial (TRIPOD 1). Proceedings 16th International Leprosy Congress, Salvador, Brazil. 2002; abstr 63.
126. Marlowe SNS, Hawksworth RA, Butlin CR, Nicholls PG, Lockwood DNJ. Clinical outcomes in a randomised controlled study comparing azathioprine and prednisolone versus prednisolone alone in the treatment of severe leprosy type 1 reactions in Nepal. Trans R Soc Trop Med Hyg (in press).
127. Marlowe SNS, Knuutilla, Herm F, Bizuneh E, Lekassa R, Lockwood DNJ. Clinical response to cyclosporin A treatment in severe leprosy type 1 reactions(T1R) patients in Nepal and Ethiopia. Proceedings16th International Leprosy Congress, Salvador, Brazil. 2002; abstr OCA7.
128. Manandhar R., LeMaster J.W., Roche P.W. Risk factors for erythema nodosum leprosum. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 67:1999;270-278.
129. Jakeman P., Smith WCS. Thalidomide in leprosy reaction. Lancet. 343:1994;432-433.
130. Moreira A.L., Kaplan G., Villahermosa L.G., et al. Comparison of pentoxifylline, thalidomide and prednisone in the treatment of ENL. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 66:1998;61-65.
131. Cross H., Newcombe L. An intensive self care training programme reduces admissions for the treatment of plantar ulcers. Lepr Rev. 72:2001;276-284.
132. Seboka G., Saunderson P., Currie H. Footwear for farmers affected by leprosy. Lepr Rev. 69:1998;182-183.
133. Kazen R.O. Management of plantar ulcers in leprosy. Lepr Rev. 70:1999;63-69.
134. Srinivasin H. Rehabilitation in leprosy. Hasting R.C. Leprosy. 2nd edn :1994;411-448 Churchill Livingstone, Edinburgh.
135. Nicholls P.G. Guidelines for social and economic rehabilitation. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;422-465.
136. International Association for Dignity and Economic Advancement. 2002; www.idealeprosydignity.org (accessed Jan 13, 2004).
137. Karonga Prevention Trial Group. Trial of BCG vaccine for protection against tuberculosis and leprosy in Karonga District, Malawi. Lancet. 348:1996;17-24.
138. Convit J., Sampson C., Zuniga M., et al. Immunoprophylactic trial with combined Mycobacterium leprae/BCG vaccine against leprosy: preliminary results. Lancet. 339:1992;446-450.
139. Gupte M.D., Vallishayee R.S., Anantharaman D.S., et al. Comparative leprosy vaccine trial in south India. Indian J Lepr. 70:1998;369-388.
140. Richardus JH, Moet FJ, Oskam L, Pahan D, Withington SJ. A prospective sero-epidemiological study on contact transmission and chemoprophylaxis in leprosy (COLEP). Proceedings 16th International Leprosy Congress, Salvador, Brazil. 2002: abstr 67.
141. Morrison A. A woman with leprosy is in double jeopardy. Lepr Rev. 71:2000;128-143.
142. Lockwood D.N., Sinha H.H. Pregnancy and leprosy: a comprehensive literature review. Int J Lepr Other Mycobact Dis. 67:1999;6-12.