Endocrine mechanisms and management for abnormal bleeding due to perimenopausal changes

Clinical Obstetrics and Gynecology

Volumn 48, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 295-311

  Jain, Akas ^a   Santoro, Nanette ^a  

^a ALBERT EINSTEIN COLLEGE OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ACTIVIN A; ESTRADIOL; ESTROGEN; FOLLITROPIN; GESTAGEN; INHIBIN A; INHIBIN B; LEVONORGESTREL; LUTEINIZING HORMONE; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ORAL CONTRACEPTIVE AGENT; PROGESTERONE; PROSTAGLANDIN INHIBITOR; TAMOXIFEN;

ADULT; AGING; AMENORRHEA; ANOVULATION; CLIMACTERIUM; DYSMENORRHEA; FEMALE; FOLLICULAR PHASE; GENETIC PREDISPOSITION; HORMONAL REGULATION; HUMAN; HYSTERECTOMY; LIFESTYLE; MENOPAUSE; MENORRHAGIA; MENSTRUAL CYCLE; MENSTRUATION; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SYMPTOMATOLOGY; TRANSVAGINAL ECHOGRAPHY; UTERUS BIOPSY; UTERUS BLEEDING;

ACTIVINS; ALGORITHMS; FEMALE; HORMONES; HUMANS; HYSTERECTOMY; INHIBIN-BETA SUBUNITS; INHIBINS; MENSTRUAL CYCLE; PERIMENOPAUSE; UTERINE HEMORRHAGE;

EID: 18044366546     PISSN: 00099201     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.grf.0000159537.89102.97     Document Type: Review

References (108)

1. Richardson SJ, Senikas V, Nelson JF. Follicular depletion during the menopausal transition: evidence for accelerated loss and ultimate exhaustion. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987;65:1231-1237.
2. Nicosia SV. Morphological changes of the human ovary throughout life. In: Serra GB, ed. The Ovary. New York, NY: Raven Press; 1983:57-81.
3. Harmam SM, Louvet JP, Ross GT. Interactions of estrogens and gonadotropins on follicular atresia. Endocrinology. 1975;96: 1145.
4. World Health Organization. Report of a WHO Scientific Group. Research on the Menopause in the 1990s. WHO Technical Report Series 866. Geneva: WHO; 1996.
5. Soules MR, Sherman S, Parrott E, et al. Stages of Reproductive Aging Workshop (STRAW). J Womens Health Gend Based Med. 2001;10:843-848.
6. Treloar AE, Boynton RE, Behn BG, et al. Variation of the human menstrual cycle through reproductive life. Int J Fertil. 1967; 12:77-126.
7. Weinstein M, Gorrindo T, Riley A, et al. Timing of menopause and patterns of menstrual bleeding. Am J Epidemiol. 2003;158: 782-791.
8. Sherman BM, Korenman SG. Hormonal characteristics of the human menstrual cycle throughout reproductive life. J Clin Invest. 1975;55:699-706.
9. Taffe JR, Dennerstein L. Menstrual patterns leading to the final menstrual period. Menopause. 2002;9:32-40.
10. Mitchell ES, Woods NF, Mariella A. Three stages of the menopausal transition from the Seattle Midlife Women's Health Study: toward a more precise definition. Menopause. 2000;7:334-349.
11. Astrup K, Olivarius Nde F, Moller S, et al. Menstrual bleeding patterns in pre- and perimenopausal women: a population-based prospective diary study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004;83:197-202.
12. Weller A, Weller L. Assessment of menstrual regularity and irregularity using self-reports and objective criteria. J Psychosom Obstet Gynaecol. 1998;19:111-116.
13. Vollman RF. The Menstrual Cycle, Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders; 1977.
14. McKinlay SM, Brambilla DJ, Posner JG. The normal menopause transition. Maturitas. 1992;14:103-115.
15. Brambilla DJ, McKinlay SM. A prospective study of factors affecting age at menopause. J Clin Epidemiol. 1989;42:1031-1039.
16. McKinlay SM, Bifano NL, McKinlay JB. Smoking and age at menopause in women. Ann Intern Med. 1985;103:350-356.
17. McKinlay SM. The normal menopause transition: an overview. Maturitas. 1996; 23:137-145.
18. Willett W, Stampfer MJ, Bain C, et al. Cigarette smoking, relative weight, and menopause. Am J Epidemiol. 1983;117:651-658.
19. Gold EB, Bromberger J, Crawford S, et al. Factors associated with the age of natural menopause in a multiethnic sample of midlife women. Am J Epidemiol. 2001;153: 865-874.
20. de Bruin JP, Bovenhuis H, van Noord PA, et al. The role of genetic factors in age at natural menopause. Hum Reprod. 2001; 16:2014-2018.
21. Weel AE, Uitterlinden AG, Westendorp IC, et al. Estrogen receptor polymorphism predicts the onset of natural and surgical menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84: 3146-3150.
22. Brambilla DJ, McKinlay SM, Johannes CB. Defining the perimenopause for application in epidemiologic investigations. Am J Epidemiol. 1994;140:1091-1095.
23. Santoro N, Brown JR, Adel T, et al. Characterization of reproductive hormonal dynamics in the perimenopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:1495-1501.
24. Metcalf MG. Incidence of ovulatory cycles in women approaching the menopause. J Biosoc Sci. 1979;11:39-48.
25. Lee SJ, Lenton EA, Sexton L, et al. The effect of age on the cyclical patterns of plasma LH, FSH, oestradiol and progesterone in women with regular menstrual cycles. Hum Reprod. 1988;3:851-855.
26. Burger HG. The endocrinology of the menopause. Maturitas. 1996;23:129-136.
27. Metcalf MG. The approach of menopause: a New Zealand study. N Z Med J. 1989;101: 103-106.
28. Metcalf MG, Donald RA, Livesey JH. Classification of menstrual cycles in pre- and perimenopausal women. J Endocrinol. 1981;91:1-10.
29. Johannes CB, Crawford SL. Menstrual bleeding, hormones, and the menopausal transition. Semin Reprod Endocrinol. 1999;17:299-309.
30. Burger HG, Dudley EC, Hopper JL, et al. Prospectively measured levels of serum follicle-stimulating hormone, estradiol, and the dimeric inhibins during the menopausal transition in a population-based cohort of women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:4025-4030.
31. Klein NA, Battaglia DE, Fujimoto VY, et al. Reproductive aging: accelerated ovarian follicular development associated with a monotropic follicle-stimulating hormone rise in normal older women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:1038-1045.
32. Santoro N, Lasley B, McConnell D, et al. Body size and ethnicity are associated with menstrual cycle alterations in women in the early menopausal transition: the Study of Women's Health across the Nation (SWAN) Daily Hormone Study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:2622-2631.
33. Roseff SJ, Bangah ML, Kettel LM, et al. Dynamic changes in circulating inhibin levels during the luteal-follicular transition of the human menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1989;69:1033-1039.
34. Roberts VJ, Earth S, el-Roeiy A, et al. Expression of inhibin/activin subunits and follistatin messenger ribonucleic acids and proteins in ovarian follicles and the corpus luteum during the human menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1993;77:1402-1410.
35. Klein NA, Illingworth PJ, Groome NP, et al. Decreased inhibin B secretion is associated with the monotropic FSH rise in older, ovulatory women: a study of serum and follicular fluid levels of dimeric inhibin A and B in spontaneous menstrual cycles. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1996;81:2742-2745.
36. Danforth DR, Arbogast LK, Mroueh J, et al. Dimeric inhibin: a direct marker of ovarian aging. Fertil Steril. 1998;70: 119-123.
37. Welt CK, McNicholl DJ, Taylor AE, et al. Female reproductive aging is marked by decreased secretion of dimeric inhibin. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1999;84:105-111.
38. Scheffer GJ, Broekmans FJ, Dorland M, et al. Antral follicle counts by transvaginal ultrasonography are related to age in women with proven natural fertility. Fertil Steril. 1999;72:845-851.
39. Tinkanen H, Blauer M, Laippala P, et al. Correlation between serum inhibin B and other indicators of the ovarian function. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 2001; 94:109-113.
40. Burger HG, Dudley E, Mamers P, et al. The ageing female reproductive axis I. Novartis Found Symp. 2002;242:161-167; discussion 167-171.
41. Santoro N, Isaac B, Neal-Perry G, et al. Impaired folliculogenesis and ovulation in older reproductive aged women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2003;88:5502-5509.
42. Santoro N, Adel T, Skurnick JH. Decreased inhibin tone and increased activin A secretion characterize reproductive aging in women. Fertil Steril. 1999;71:658-662.
43. Reame NE, Wyman TL, Phillips DJ, et al. Net increase in stimulatory input resulting from a decrease in inhibin B and an increase in activin A may contribute in part to the rise in follicular phase follicle-stimulating hormone of aging cycling women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1998;83:3302-3307.
44. Klein NA, Houmard BS, Hansen KR, et al. Age-related analysis of inhibin A, inhibin B, and activin a relative to the intercycle monotropic follicle-stimulating hormone rise in normal ovulatory women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2004;89:2977-2981.
45. Nesse RE. Abnormal vaginal bleeding in perimenopausal women. Am Fam Physician. 1989;40:185-192.
46. Farquhar CM, Steiner CA. Hysterectomy rates in the United States 1990-1997. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;99:229-234.
47. Chimbira TH, Anderson AB, Turnbull A. Relation between measured menstrual blood loss and patient's subjective assessment of loss, duration of bleeding, number of sanitary towels used, uterine weight and endometrial surface area. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1980;87:603-609.
48. Hallberg L, Hogdahl AM, Nilsson L, et al. Menstrual blood loss-a population study. Variation at different ages and attempts to define normality. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 1966;45:320-351.
49. Fraser IS, McCarron G, Markham R. A preliminary study of factors influencing perception of menstrual blood loss volume. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984;149:788-793.
50. Johannes CB, Crawford SL, Woods J, et al. An electronic menstrual cycle calendar: comparison of data quality with a paper version. Menopause. 2000;7:200-208.
51. Taffe J, Dennerstein L. Menstrual diary data and menopausal transition: methodologic issues. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2002;81:588-594.
52. Sowers MR, La Pietra MT. Menopause: its epidemiology and potential association with chronic diseases. Epidemiol Rev. 1995;17:287-302.
53. Brill AI. What is the role of hysteroscopy in the management of abnormal uterine bleeding? Clin Obstet Gynecol. 1995;38:319-345.
54. Reyes FI, Winter JS, Faiman C. Pituitary-ovarian relationships preceding the menopause. I. A cross-sectional study of serum follicle-stimulating hormone, luteinizing hormone, prolactin, estradiol, and progesterone levels. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1977; 129:557-564.
55. Brown JB, Kellar R, Matthew GD. Preliminary observations on urinary oestrogen excretion in certain gynaecological disorders. J Obstet Gynaecol Br Emp. 1959;66:177-211.
56. van Look PF, Lothian H, Hunter WM, et al. Hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian function in perimenopausal women. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1977;7:13-31.
57. Moen MH, Kahn H, Bjerve KS, et al. Menometrorrhagia in the perimenopause is associated with increased serum estradiol. Maturitas. 2004;47:151-155.
58. DeWaay DJ, Syrop CH, Nygaard IE, et al. Natural history of uterine polyps and leiomyomata. Obstet Gynecol. 2002;100: 3-7.
59. Geller SE, Burns LR, Brailer DJ. The impact of nonclinical factors on practice variations: the case of hysterectomies. Health Serv Res. 1996;30:729-750.
60. Marshall LM, Spiegelman D, Barbieri RL, et al. Variation in the incidence of uterine leiomyoma among premenopausal women by age and race. Obstet Gynecol. 1997; 90:967-973.
61. Wallach EE, Vlahos NF. Uterine myomas: an overview of development, clinical features, and management. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;104:393-406.
62. Belsey EM, Pinol AP. Menstrual bleeding patterns in untreated women. Task Force on Long-Acting Systemic Agents for Fertility Regulation. Contraception. 1997;55: 57-65.
63. World Cancer Research Fund. Food, Nutrition and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective. Washington, D.C.: American Institute for Cancer Research; 1997.
64. SEER cancer statistics review, 1973-1996 (serial online). Available at: http://seer. cancer.gov/csr/1973_1996/.
65. Practice Bulletin ACOG. Management of Anovulatory Bleeding. 2004;14:434-441.
66. Ricci JV. Gynecologic surgery and instruments of the nineteenth century prior to the antiseptic age. In: The Development of Gynaecological Surgery and Instruments. Philadelphia, PA: Blakiston; 1949: 326-328.
67. Vuopala S. Diagnostic accuracy and clinical applicability of cytological and histological methods for investigating endometrial carcinoma. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl. 1977;70:1-72.
68. Stovall TG, Photopulos GJ, Poston WM, et al. Pipelle endometrial sampling in patients with known endometrial carcinoma. Obstet Gynecol. 1991;77:954-956.
69. Guido RS, Kanbour-Shakir A, Rulin MC, et al. Pipelle endometrial sampling. Sensitivity in the detection of endometrial cancer. J Reprod Med. 1995;40:553-555.
70. Ferrazzi E, Leone FP. Investigating abnormal bleeding on HRT or tamoxifen: the role of ultrasonography. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;18:145-156.
71. Emanuel MH, Ankum WM, Verdel MJ, et al. The reproducibility of the results of trans vaginal sonography of the uterus in patients with abnormal uterine bleeding. Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 1996;8:346-349.
72. Langer RD, Pierce JJ, O'Hanlan KA, et al. Transvaginal ultrasonography compared with endometrial biopsy for the detection of endometrial disease. Postmenopausal Estrogen/Progestin Interventions Trial. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:1792-1798.
73. Goldstein SR. Use of ultrasonohysterography for triage of perimenopausal patients with unexplained uterine bleeding. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994;170:565-570.
74. Clevenger-Hoeft M, Syrop CH, Stovall DW, et al. Sonohysterography in premenopausal women with and without abnormal bleeding. Obstet Gynecol. 1999;94:516-520.
75. Widrich T, Bradley LD, Mitchinson AR, et al. Comparison of saline infusion sonography with office hysteroscopy for the evaluation of the endometrium. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1996;174:1327-1334.
76. Jain T, Klein NA, Lee DM, et al. Endocrine assessment of relative reproductive age in normal eumenorrheic younger and older women across multiple cycles. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003;189:1080-1084.
77. Goldstein SR. Menorrhagia and abnormal bleeding before the menopause. Best Pract Res Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 2004;18:59-69.
78. Goldstein SR, Zeltser I, Koran CK, et al. Ultrasonography-based triage for perimenopausal patients with abnormal uterine bleeding. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1997;177: 102-108.
79. Special focus: surveillance for reproductive health-surveillance summary, hysterectomy surveillance-United States, 1980-1993. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46:1.
80. Lee NC, Dicker RC, Rubin GL, et al. Confirmation of the preoperative diagnoses for hysterectomy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1984; 150:283-287.
81. Bonnar J, Sheppard BL. Treatment of menorrhagia during menstruation: randomised controlled trial of ethamsylate, mefenamic acid, and tranexamic acid. BMJ. 1996;313: 579-582.
82. Carlson KJ, Miller BA, Fowler FJ Jr. The Maine Women's Health Study: II. Outcomes of nonsurgical management of leiomyomas, abnormal bleeding, and chronic pelvic pain. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;83: 566-572.
83. Carlson KJ, Miller BA, Fowler FJ Jr. The Maine Women's Health Study: I. Outcomes of hysterectomy. Obstet Gynecol. 1994;83: 556-565.
84. Learman LA, Summitt RL Jr, Varner RE, et al. Hysterectomy versus expanded medical treatment for abnormal uterine bleeding: clinical outcomes in the medicine or surgery trial. Obstet Gynecol. 2004;103: 824-833.
85. Kuppermann M, Varner RE, Summitt RL Jr, et al. Effect of hysterectomy versus medical treatment on health-related quality of life and sexual functioning: the medicine or surgery (Ms) randomized trial. JAMA. 2004;291:1447-1455.
86. Carlson KJ, Schiff I. Alternatives to hysterectomy for menorrhagia. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:198-199.
87. O'Connor H, Magos A. Endometrial resection for the treatment of menorrhagia. N Engl J Med. 1996;335:151-156.
88. Lissak A, Fruchter O, Mashiach S, et al. Immediate versus delayed treatment of perimenopausal bleeding due to benign causes by balloon thermal ablation. J Am Assoc Gynecol Laparosc. 1999;6:145-150.
89. Halbert DR. Menstrual delay and dysfunctional uterine bleeding associated with antiprostaglandin therapy for dysmenorrhea. J Reprod Med. 1983;28:592-594.
90. Fraser IS. Treatment of ovulatory and anovulatory dysfunctional uterine bleeding with oral progestogens. Aust N Z J Obstet Gynaecol 1990;30:353-356.
91. Jennings JC. Abnormal uterine bleeding. Med Clin North Am. 1995;79:1357-1376.
92. Kistner RW. Endometrial alterations associated with estrogen and estrogen-progestin combinations. In: Norris HJ, Hertig AT, Abel MR, eds. The Uterus. Baltimore, MD: Williams and Wilkins; 1973:227-254.
93. Bishop PM, Cabral de Almeida JC. Treatment of functional menstrual disorders with norethisterone. Br Med J. 1960;5179: 1103-1105.
94. Richter HE, Learman LA, Lin F, et al. Medroxyprogesterone acetate treatment of abnormal uterine bleeding: factors predicting satisfaction. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003; 189:37-42.
95. Lumbiganon P, Rugpao S, Phandhu-fung S, et al. Protective effect of depot-medroxyprogesterone acetate on surgically treated uterine leiomyomas: a multicentre case-control study. Br J Obstet Gynaecol. 1996; 103:909-914.
96. Kaunitz AM. Oral contraceptive use in perimenopause. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001;185:S32-S37.
97. Schneider HP. Hazards in perimenopausal contraception. Eur J Contracept Reprod Health Care. 1997;2:95-100.
98. World Health Organization. Oral Contraception and Neoplasia: Report of a WHO Scientific Committee. Geneva: WHO; 1992: 16-21.
99. Henshaw SK. Unintended pregnancy in the United States. Fam Plann Perspect. 1998; 30:24-29, 46.
100. Glasier A, Gebbie A. Contraception for the older woman. Baillieres Clin Obstet Gynaecol. 1996;10:121-138.
101. Goldbaum GM, Kendrick JS, Hogelin GC, et al. The relative impact of smoking and oral contraceptive use on women in the United States. JAMA. 1987;258:1339-1342.
102. Croft P, Hannaford PC. Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in women: evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners' oral contraception study. Br Med J. 1989;298:165-168.
103. Tanis BC, van den Bosch MA, Kemmeren JM, et al. Oral contraceptives and the risk of myocardial infarction. N Engl J Med. 2001; 345:1787-1793.
104. Hannaford PC, Croft PR, Kay CR. Oral contraception and stroke. Evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners' Oral Contraception Study. Stroke. 1994;25: 935-942.
105. Suhonen SP, Allonen HO, Lahteenmaki P. Sustained-release estradiol implants and a levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device in hormone replacement therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1995;172:562-567.
106. Crosignani PG, Vercellini P, Mosconi P, et al. Levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine device versus hysteroscopic endometrial resection in the treatment of dysfunctional uterine bleeding. Obstet Gynecol. 1997;90: 257-263.
107. Hurskainen R, Teperi J, Rissanen P, et al. Quality of life and cost-effectiveness of levonorgestrel-releasing intrauterine system versus hysterectomy for treatment of menorrhagia: a randomised trial. Lancet. 2001; 357:273-277.
108. Wildemeersch D, Schacht E, Wildemeersch P. Performance and acceptability of intrauterine release of levonorgestrel with a miniature delivery system for hormonal substitution therapy, contraception and treatment in peri and postmenopausal women. Maturitas. 2003;44:237-245.