Internationalism and the Junior Year Abroad: American students in France in the 1920s and 1930s

Diplomatic History

Volumn 29, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 255-278

  Walton, Whitney ^a  

^a PURDUE UNIVERSITY   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 17444419062     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-7709.2005.00473.x     Document Type: Review

References (153)

1. University of Delaware Archives (hereafter UD), Foreign Study Plan Records, 1922-1948. Numbers of students on the University of Delaware Foreign Study Plan are as follows: 8 in 1923-24; 5 in 1924-25; 14 in 1925-26; 45 in 1926-27; 44 in 1927-28; 67 in 1928-29; 67 in 1929-30; 60 in 1930-31; 91 in 1931-32; 65 in 1932-33; 42 in 1933-34; 34 in 1934-35; 41 in 1935-36; 35 in 1936-37; 57 in 1937-38; 51 in 1938-39; 42 in 1939, for a total of 768 from 125 different colleges and universities. Brief Report on the Delaware Foreign Study Plan, 13 May 1948, in UD, AR 448, vol. 20, 1947-48. Approximately 450 Smith College students went to France from 1925 to 1939; 32 in 1925-26; 32 in 1926-27; 42 in 1927-28; 38 in 1928-29; 38 in 1929-30; 47 in 1930-31; 33 in 1931-32; 46 in 1932-33; 31 in 1933-34; 18 in 1934-35; figures missing for 1935-36; 23 in 1936-37; 26 in 1937-38; figures missing for 1938-39. Smith College Archives (hereafter SC), Junior Year Abroad France, 1927-present, box 1132.
2. Akira Iriye, Cultural Internationalism and World Order (Baltimore, 2001);
3. Leila Rupp, Worlds of Women: The Making of an International Women's Movement (Princeton, NJ, 1998).
4. See also Akira Iriye, "Culture," Journal of American History 77 (June 1990): 99-107.
5. Brent Hayes Edwards, The Practice of Diaspora: Literature, Translation, and the Rise of Black Internationalism (Cambridge, MA, 2003);
6. Anne Summers, "Critique. Gaps in the Record: Hidden Internationalisms," History Workshop Journal 52 (Autumn 2001): 217-27;
7. Mrinalini Sinha, Donna Guy, and Angela Wollacott, eds., Feminisms and Internationalism (Oxford, 1999).
8. Emily S. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream: American Economic and Cultural Expansion, 1890-1945 (New York, 1982);
9. Frank Costigliola, Awkward Dominion: American Political, Economic, and Cultural Relations with Europe, 1919-1933 (Ithaca, NY, 1984);
10. Frank A. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas: U.S. Foreign Policy and Cultural Relations, 1938-1950 (Cambridge, England, 1981).
11. For European and French responses to Americanization, see Richard Pells, Not Like Us: How Europeans Have Loved, Hated, and Transformed American Culture since World War II (New York, 1997);
12. Richard F. Kuisel, Seducing the French: The Dilemma of Americanization (Berkeley, CA, 1993);
13. Pascal Ory, "From Baudelaire to Duhamel: An Unlikely Antipathy," in The Rise and Fall of Anti-Americanism: A Century of French Perception eds. Denis Lacorne, Jacques Rupnik, and Marie-France Toinet (New York, 1990), 42-54. For the period preceding World War I, Christopher Endy defines internationalism as "any belief that the United States and the American people should assume a more active role in international affairs or in the improvement of the world."
14. Christopher Endy, "Travel and World Power: Americans in Europe, 1890-1917," Diplomatic History 22 (Fall 1998): 575.
15. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream;
16. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas.
17. Alain Dubosclard, "Diplomatie culturelle et propagande française aux Etats-Unis pendant le premier vingtième siècle" [Cultural Diplomacy and French Propaganda in the United States during the Early Twentieth Century], Revue d'Histoire Moderne et Contemporaine 48 (January-March 2001): 102-19;
18. Suzanne Balous, L'Action culturelle de la France dans le monde [French Cultural Activity in the World] (Paris, 1970);
19. George Weisz, The Emergence of Modern Universities in France, 1863-1914 (Princeton, NJ, 1983), 252-68;
20. Ruth Emily McMurry and Muna Lee, The Cultural Approach: Another Way in International Relations (Chapel Hill, NC, 1947);
21. Archives du Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Nantes (hereafter MAE), Services des oeuvres françaises à l'étranger [Archives of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nantes, Service of French Works Abroad], 1912-1940, Section des Ecoles: Etats Unis [Education Section: United States], cartons 426, 427, 431, 432;
22. Archives Nationales de France [French National Archives; hereafter AN], AJ 16 Académie de Paris [University of Paris], cartons 6968-75. hereafter AN], AJ 16 Académie de Paris [University of Paris], cartons 6968-75.
23. Jessica C. E. Gienow-Hecht, "Shame on US? Academics, Cultural Transfer, and the Cold War-A Critical Review," Diplomatic History 24 (Summer 2000): 491.
24. See also Pells, Not Like Us;
25. Kuisel, Seducing the French.
26. Kristin Hoganson, "Cosmopolitan Domesticity: Importing the American Dream, 1865-1920," American Historical Review 107 (February 2002): 55-83;
27. "The National and Beyond: Transnational Perspectives on United States History." A Special Issue of the Journal of American History 86 (December 1999);
28. Daniel T. Rodgers, Atlantic Crossings: Social Politics in a Progressive Age (Cambridge, MA, 1998);
29. Endy, "Travel and World Power."
30. Joan W. Scott, "The Evidence of Experience," Critical Inquiry 17 (Summer 1991): 773-97.
31. See also Ravina Aggarwal, "'Point of Departure': Feminist Locations and the Politics of Travel to India," Feminist Studies 26 (Fall 2000): 535-62.
32. Jürgen Herbst, The German Historical School in American Scholarship: A Study in the Transfer of Culture (Ithaca, NY, 1965);
33. Carl Diehl, Americans and German Scholarship, 1770-1870 (New Haven, CT and London, 1978);
34. Thomas Neville Bonner, To the Ends of the Earth: Women's Search for Education in Medicine (Cambridge, MA and London, 1992);
35. Gabriel Weisberg et al., Overcoming All Obstacles: The Women of the Académie Julian (New York, 1999).
36. Two thirds of foreign students in the United States were from Asia and Latin America right after World War I. Stephen P. Duggan, "First Annual Report of the Director," Institute of International Education Bulletin 1 (1920): 8. In 1922, of 8,357 foreign students in the United States, 2,506 were from Asia, 1,425 from Latin America, and 1,379 from Europe.
37. W. Reginald Wheeler, Henry H. King, and Alexander B. Davidson, eds., The Foreign Student in America (New York, 1925), xvi.
38. Stephen P. Duggan, "The Problem of Fellowships for Foreign Students in American Universities and Fellowships for American Students in Foreign Universities," Institute of International Education Bulletin 1, 5th series (1 March 1924): 1-11. IIE Bulletins from the late 1920s and 1930s indicate that a small but growing number of Americans earned fellowships to study in Eastern Europe, Latin America, and (to a far lesser extent) China. For example, Institute of International Education Bulletin 4, 14th series (1 October 1933): 34-37.
39. Martha Hanna, "French Women and American Men: 'Foreign' Students at the University of Paris, 1915-1925," French Historical Studies 22 (Winter 1999): 87-112;
40. C. Bouglé, "L'Université franco-américaine" [The Franco-American University], Revue de Paris 26, pt. 3 (1910): 750-65;
41. Stephen H. Bush, "Un Détachement de l'armée américaine dans les écoles de Paris" [An American Army Detachment in the Schools of Paris], Revue internationale de l'enseignement 74 (1920): 345-58;
42. Henri Goy, "Les Cours de civilisation" [French Civilization Courses], Foreign Study Notes 1 (December 1929-March 1930): 7-10.
43. "Rapport à M. le Doyen de la Faculté des lettres sur la réception des étudiants américains pendant la periode de démobilisation" [Report of the Dean of the Faculty of Letters on Receiving American Students during Demobilization], submitted to the Rector of the University of Paris on 23 November 1918. AN, AJ 16/6973, Académie de Paris, file: Les étudiants américains à Paris pendant la guerre de 1916-1918; 1919; 1936 [American Students in Paris during the War]; AN, AJ 4752 Registre des actes et déclarations de la Faculté des lettres de Paris, 1914-1918 [Register of Acts and Declarations of the Faculty of Letters of Paris].
44. Letter from Kirkbride to Hullihen, 17 November 1922, UD, AR 330, President's Office, Walter Hullihen. Series 2: Foreign Study Plan Correspondence 1922-37; 1927-28. Volume 1922-37.
45. Walter Hullihen quoted in "Service Citizens Plan Numerous Educational Aids," Morning News (Wilmington, DE), 13 May 1922. This clipping is in Scrapbook #1, UD, AR 42 Scrapbooks.
46. Walter Hullihen, "Undergraduate Foreign Study for Credit toward the American Baccalaureate Degree," Educational Record 5 (January 1924): 45.
47. Français à l'Etranger. Relations internationales de l'Université de Paris [French Institutes Abroad. International Relations of the University of Paris] (1843-1965). Relations avec les université étrangères: Etats-Unis [Relations with Foreign Universities: United States] (1895-1960). File, "University of Delaware, 1930-36."
48. Costigliola, Awkward Dominion;
49. Rosenberg, Spreading the American Dream;
50. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas.
51. Stephen P. Duggan, "The Institute of International Education," School and Society 12 (July-December 1920): 642.
52. David A. Robertson, "International Education Relations of the United States," Educational Record 6 (April 1925): 91-153.
53. Georges Duflot, Guide illustré l'étudiant étranger à Paris et en France [Illustrated Guide for the Foreign Student in Paris and in France] (Paris, 1907);
54. Robertson, "International Educational Relations," 136;
55. McMurry and Lee, The Cultural Approach, ch. 2; AN, AJ 16/6968 Instituts Français à l'Etranger. Relations internationales de l'Universitè de Paris (1843-1965). Relations avec les universités étrangères. Espagne, Etats Baltes, Etats-Unis (1895-1960). File, "Etats-Unis, Echanges universitaires 1902-1957; AN, AJ 16/7027-7044 Cité Universitaire; within this group cartons AJ 16/7039-40 deal with the Fondation des Etats-Unis, 1921-1957.
56. AN, AJ 16/6968 Instituts Français à l'Etranger. Relations internationales de l'Universitè de Paris Relations avec les universités étrangères. Espagne, Etats Baltes, Etats-Unis (1895-1960). File, "Etats-Unis, Echanges universitaires 1902-1957; AN, AJ 16/7027-7044 Cité Universitaire; within this group cartons AJ 16/ 7039-40 deal with the Fondation des Etats-Unis, 1921-1957
57. AN, AJ 16/7027-7044 Cité Universitaire; within this group cartons AJ 16/7039-40 deal with the Fondation des Etats-Unis, 1921-1957.
58. Marcus M. Marks, "International Travel and Study-An Official College Extension," Educational Record 5 (January 1924): 40-43.
59. Numbers of Americans studying in France vary widely according to different sources. Part of the reason is that there were so many different forms of study abroad; in addition to students enrolled at French universities, many took courses in art, music, or technical institutes, or in summer schools, and this latter group was not always counted. A conservative estimate of the number of Americans studying in France in April 1922 was between 600 and 700; the director of the American University Union in Paris counted 3,002 Americans studying in France in 1923-24; and unofficial figures for 1927-28 noted 4,000 American students enrolled in French universities. Wheeler et al., The Foreign Student in America, 23; Horatio S. Krans, "L'Américan University Union à Paris et son nouveau domicile" [The American University Union of Paris and Its New Location], Revue internationale de l'enseignement 78 (1924): 242; John L Gerig, "De l'utilité d'une maison française à l'Université Columbia" [The Usefulness of a French House at Columbia University], n.d., mimeographed report, AN, AJ 16/6973 Instituts Français à l'Etranger. Relations internationales de l'Université de Paris (1843-1965). Relations avec les universités étrangères: Etats-Unis (suite) (1895-1960). A British publication put the figure of Americans studying in France in 1922 at 1,392, in contrast with 407 Americans at British universities. "The Universities and International Relations," Nature 115 (11 April 1925), 523. The Institute of International Education Bulletin published yearly numbers of foreign students in the United States and American students studying abroad.
60. Hullihen, "Undergraduate Foreign Study," 48-51.
61. Junior Year in France 50 JYA France, typed list of years, number, and directors, in Junior Year Abroad France. 1927-present, SC, box 1132.
62. Typed report dated 22 May 1929, in ibid.
63. Letter of 5 March 1923, in Foreign Study Plan Records, UD, AR 330, Hullihen Papers, 1922-37.
64. Report to the President, 18 December 1927, SC, Neilson JYA box 49.
65. David O. Levine, The American College and the Culture of Aspiration, 1915-1940 (Ithaca, NY, 1986).
66. Katherine S. Bolman, "Juniors in France," Journal of the American Association of University Women 23 (October 1929): 24.
67. I b i d.
68. Endy, "Travel and World Power."
69. Excerpts from letters of Katharine A. Morrison in 1930, UD, AR 68, folder 540.
70. Excerpt from a letter of 5 May 1930 from Helen P. Roads to George E. Brinton, responding to his request that parents share portions of the letters from their children on the Delaware Foreign Study Plan, UD, AR 68, folder 540, page 6.
71. Letter of 14 July 1926 from Delia Brown to Hélène Cattenès, SC, Neilson Papers, box 49.
72. Letter of 14 November 1929 from Florence Elizabeth Bragdon to her family, SC, box 2029.
73. Harvey Levenstein, Seductive Journey: American Tourists in France from Jefferson to the Jazz Age (Chicago and London, 1998).
74. While Levenstein dates the stereotype of France as a place of decadent pleasures to the late nineteenth century, William Keylor attributes this to returning American veterans from World War I. William R. Keylor, "How They Advertised France': The French Propaganda Campaign in the United States during the Breakup of the Franco-American Entente, 1918-1923," Diplomatic History 17 (Summer 1993): 351-73.
75. Letter of 4 March 1923 from Kirkbride to Hullihen, UD, AR 330, Hullihen Papers, Foreign Study, 1922-37.
76. Hélène Cattanès, "Twenty-Five Years Ago: Thirty-Two Innocents Abroad," Smith Alumnae Quarterly 42 (February 1951): 74.
77. Oral interview with Mrs. Beatrice F. Davis by Myron L. Lazarus, 15 July 1970, UD, AR 97, folder 1646.
78. Oral interview with W. Emerson Wilson by Myron L. Lazarus, 9 August 1970, UD, Foreign Study Plan Records, AR 97, folder 1646. He goes on to recount how he explained his surprise to his French hosts and misused the word "baiser" which means to kiss or a kiss, but in common usage means to have sexual intercourse.
79. A possible exception to this was race relations. A few students noted with surprise seeing mixed-race couples and social or erotic interaction between black and white women and men in France. For example, one student wrote home, probably in 1929: "The Negros here seem to think that they are just the same as the whites. I see a couple-one white and the other colored, rather often. The first day I walked down the street here [in Paris] a colored man was flirting with a white girl." Letter from an unknown student, UD, AR 68, folder 540.
80. Y., "Examens de conscience" [Self-Examination], Foreign Study Notes 1 (August-November 1929): 39
81. I b i d.
82. Letter of 9 January 1938 from Eleanor Daniels to her parents, SC, box 2116.
83. Common French stereotypes of Americans were the following: Americans were rich; American men especially were interested only in business, and they were missionaries of modernization; they were uncouth, arrogant. Ralph Schor, L'Opinion française et les étrangers en France [French Public Opinion and Foreigners in France], 1919-1939 (Paris, 1985), 161-64.
84. Although American movies reached Parisian audiences in the 1930s, French imaginings about Americans usually came from published accounts by French persons who had traveled in the United States. Bernadette Gailloux-Fournier, "Un Regard sur l'Amérique: Voyageurs français aux Etats-Unis" [A Look at America; French Travelers to the United States] (1919-1939), Revue d'histoire moderne et contemporaine 37 (April-June 1990): 308-23;
85. Jacques Portes, Fascination and Misgivings: The United States in French Opinion, 1870-1914, trans. Elborg Forster (New York 2000).
86. Letter of 31 January 1926 from Tebbets to her parents, SC, box 1994.
87. Letter of 11 September 1929 from Elizabeth Bragdon to her parents, SC, box 2029.
88. Letter of 29 November 1925 from Caroline Miller Stabler to her mother, SC, box 1990. French popular opinion against paying off the war debt to the United States resulted in attacks on American tourists in Paris in 1926. Costighola, Awkward Dominion, 133-35.
89. Letter of 14 February 1926 from Caroline Miller Stabler to her family, SC, box 1990.
90. "Foreign Study Members Broadcast in Paris," University of Delaware Review, 25 May 1928. Johnston's speech was entitled, "What an American Student Gains in France," and was published in its entirety. UD, AR 42 Printed and Duplicated material. Scrapbook, vol. 1.
91. Letters of 17 October and 20 October 1925 from Dorothy Tebbets to her parents, SC, box 1994.
92. Letter of February 1931 to her parents. Folder: Class of 1932 Adams, Phebe Elizabeth: Correspondence from junior year in France, 1930-31. In SC, 1932 Individuals A-Hol. 80.Cla box 2041.
93. Excerpt of a letter from Henry Kirkpatrick to his parents, 15 September 1929; enclosed with a letter from his father, William F. Kirkpatrick in Storrs, Connecticut to George E. Brinton of 26 June 1930. UD, AR 68, Miscellaneous historical material, folder 540, Letters to parents from students 1929-30 (Group VII).
94. Letter of 22 November 1925 from Tebbets to her parents, SC, box 1994.
95. Letter of 4 February 1927 from Hilda Donahue to Neilson, SC, Neilson Papers, box 49.
96. Weisz, The Emergence of Modern Universities in France;
97. Fritz Ringer, Fields of Knowledge: French Academic Culture in Comparative Perspective (Cambridge, England, and Paris, 1992).
98. Julie A. Reuben, The Making of the Modern University: Intellectual Transformation and the Marginalization of Morality (Chicago, 1996);
99. Laurence R. Veysey, The Emergence of the American University (Chicago, 1965).
100. Levine, The American College and the Culture of Aspiration.
101. Christophe Charle, La République des universitaires [The Republic of Academics], 1870-1940 (Paris, 1994).
102. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Campus Life: Undergraduate Cultures from the End of the Eighteenth Century to the Present (New York, 1987);
103. Paula Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful: American Youth in the 1920s (New York, 1977).
104. Pierre Moulinier presents the public, social, and political life of Parisian students before World War I, but he also notes the competitive, individualistic nature of higher education in France. Pierre Moulinier, La Naissance de l'étudiant moderne (XIXe siècle) [The Birth of the Modern Student in the Nineteenth Century] (Paris, 2002), chs. 9-11, 152-53.
105. X., "Examens de conscience," Foreign Study Notes 1 (August-November 1929): 38.
106. Alice A. Woodard, "The Second Group of Juniors in France," Smith Alumnae Quarterly 18 (May 1927): 288.
107. Letters of 11 January and 22 February 1937 from Mary Louise Cahill to her parents, SC, box 2110. The last letter also indicates that this phonetics course was dropped from the program.
108. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful, 18-20, ch. 8;
109. Frederick Lewis Allen Only Yesterday: An Informal History of the 1920s (New York, 1931);
110. Horowitz, Campus Life, esp. ch. 7, 161, 1164;
111. Levine, American College and the Culture of Aspiration, chs. 6, 9, 205-6;
112. Helen Lefkowitz Horowitz, Alma Mater: Design and Experience in the Women's Colleges from Their Nineteenth-Century Beginnings to the 1930s (Boston, 1984), 281-82.
113. Letter from unknown student to parents, 1929 or 1930, UD, AR 68, folder 539.
114. Excerpt of a letter of 24 August 1929 from Miriam Allen to her parents, and sent by W. Ray Allen in Chicago to George Brinton. UD, AR 68, folder 540: Letters to parents from students 1929-30, Group VII.
115. Letter of 24 August 1929 from Frances Hurrey to her family, Frances Hurrey Philips Papers, Mount Holyoke College Archives and Special Collections, South Hadley, Massachusetts. Many thanks to Emily Brush for this research. Hurrey's preference for the American cemetery over the rest of the Verdun battlefield site supports Mark Meigs's contention that the American Graves Registration Service intended the graveyard to be separate from and grander than those of other nationalties, reflecting the nature of the United States' engagement in World War I. Mark Meigs, Optimism at Armageddon: Voices of American Participants in the First World War (New York, 1997), 185-86.
116. Stephen L. Harp, Marketing Michelin: Advertising and Cultural Identity in Twentieth-Century France (Baltimore, 2001), ch. 3;
117. David W. Lloyd, Battlefield Tourism: Pilgrimage and the Commemoration of the Great War in Britain, Australia and Canada, 1919-1939 (New York, 1998);
118. George L. Mosse, Fallen Soldiers: Reshaping the Memory of the World Wars (New York, 1990).
119. See also Rudy Koshar, German Travel Cultures (New York, 2000);
120. Adrian Gregory, The Silence of Memory: Armistice Day, 1919-1946 (Providence, RI, 1994);
121. G. Kurt Piehler, "The War Dead and the Gold Star: American Commemoration of the First World War," in Commemorations: The Politics of National Identity, ed. John R. Gillis (Princeton, NJ, 1994), 168-85;
122. Daniel J. Sherman, The Construction of Memory in Interwar France (Chicago, 1999).
123. Excerpts of letters from Laurence Wylie to his mother, Maud Stout Wylie who wrote to George E. Brinton 16 May 1930. UD, AR 68, folder 540
124. Diary entry of 7 November 1930 of Phebe Elizabeth Adams, SC, box 2041.
125. Unknown author, UD, AR 68, folder 540.
126. Letter of 11 November 1925 from Dorothy Tebbets to her parents, SC, box 1994.
127. Excerpts from letters of Katherine M. Pratt, UD, AR 68, folder 539. The letter was probably written in 1929 because all the excerpts in this folder came from the 1929-30 group, and the "first excursion" probably occurred in the first part of the year.
128. Letter of 14 June 1926 from Dorothy Tebbets to her parents, SC, box 1994.
129. "Association d'Accueil aux Etudiants des Etats Unis, 14e Assemblée Générale, 17 Juin 1936. Rapport de la Secrétaire Générale" [Welcome Organization for American Students, 14th General Assembly. Report of the General Secretary], 7, in AN, AJ 16/6968.
130. Dispatch of 117 May 1932 from the Office National des Universités et Ecoles françaises to the director of the Services des oeuvres françaises à l'étranger, in Folder 0-160-3, 1932 Etats-Unis bourses, MAE, carton 426, Section des services des oeuvres françaises à l'étranger, Ecoles, Etats-Unis, 1920-1940.
131. Draft of a letter by Sebastien Charléty, in AN, AJ 16/6970 Universités des Etats Unis, file: University of Delaware, 1930-36. When George Brinton, the director of the Delaware Foreign Study Plan, sent a copy of the publication to Charléty, he wrote in the accompanying letter of 9 April 1930: "I hope that this little publication will impress you favorably, and that it will serve effectively to make known in America the education offered to foreigners at the Sorbonne." Ibid. The published version of Charléty's letter appeared in Foreign Study Notes 1 (December 1929-March 1930): 3.
132. AN, AJ 16/6970 File on University of Delaware, 1930-36; UD, AR 96 and 97 Delfor Alumni Association; SC, Junior Year Abroad, France. Association of Former Juniors in France, boxes 1133 and 1134.
133. W. A. Neilson, President of Smith College, "Educator Sees Wide Benefits in Study Abroad," Herald Tribune (New York), 16 August 1931, located in UD, AR 42, Printed and Duplicated material, vol. 2 scrapbook, 1929-1954.
134. Walter Hullihen, "Present Status of the 'Junior Year Abroad,'" typed manuscript (printed in French Review 1 [January 1928]: 25-37), UD, AR 67, folder 522, p. 7.
135. Pierre Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste, trans. Richard Nice (Cambridge, MA, 1984). On American students' (especially women's) sense of freedom and selfhood,
136. see Peter G. Filene, Him/Her/Self: Gender Identities in Modern America, 3d ed. (Baltimore, 1998), 143;
137. Fass, The Damned and the Beautiful, 23, ch. 5.
138. UD, AR 97 Delfor Alumni Association, folder 1637, Delfor Alumni Questionnaire, 26 January 1933, A-D. See also David A. Robertson, "The Junior Year Abroad: A Successful Experiment," Educational Record 9 (January 1928): 32-45.
139. Letter of 16 July 1926 from Ginny Stearns to Hélène Cattenès, SC, Neilson Papers, box 49.
140. Letter of 19 July 1926 from Louise Whitney to Hélène Cattenès, SC, Neilson Papers, box 49. box 49
141. Louis V. Blum, "Blum Gives Impressions of France; Foreign Study Student Writes to Review," University of Delaware [Review], 22 March 1929, in UD, AR 42 Scrapbook, Vol. 1.
142. "Excerpts taken from questionnaire to Groups I, II, III," UD, AR 45 Operations File, Selected Papers, 1922-48.
143. Althea B. Avery, "The Junior Year in France," Bryn Mawr Alumnae Bulletin 15 (1935): 6.
144. Oral Interview with Herbert H. Lank by Myron L. Lazarus, 20 August 1970, UD, AR 97, folder 1646.
145. Letter of 16 September 1937 to her family by Eleanor Daniels, SC, 1939 Individuals, 80.cla, box 2116.
146. Elizabeth Murphy, "Ten Years Ago the Juniors Went to France," Smith Alumnae Quarterly (1935): 241 (reproduced and located in Junior Year Abroad France 1927-present, SC, box 1132).
147. Benedict Anderson, Imagined Communities. Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism, rev. ed. (London and New York, 1991).
148. Ninkovich, The Diplomacy of Ideas;
149. McMurry and Lee, The Cultural Approach;
150. Gienow-Hecht, "Shame on US?"
151. See also Irwin M. Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954 (New York, 1991);
152. Reinhold Wagnleitner, Coca-Colonization and the Cold War: The Cultural Mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War, trans. Diana M. Wolf (Chapel Hill, NC, 1994).
153. C. Robert Pace, The Junior Year in France: An Evaluation of the University of Delaware-Sweet Briar Program (Syracuse, NY, 1959), 1, 3.