Point of departure: Feminist locations and the politics of travel in India

Feminist Studies

Volumn 26, Issue 3, 2000, Pages 535-562

  Aggarwal, Ravina ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0039606681     PISSN: 00463663     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/3178637     Document Type: Article

References (65)

1. James Clifford, "Traveling Cultures," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York: Routledge, 1992), 96-116; and Clifford Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist As Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
2. James Clifford, "Traveling Cultures," in Cultural Studies, ed. Lawrence Grossberg, Cary Nelson, and Paula A. Treichler (New York: Routledge, 1992), 96-116; and Clifford Geertz, Works and Lives: The Anthropologist As Author (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1988).
3. Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson, "Discipline and Practice: The 'Field' as Site, Method, and Location in Anthropology," in Anthropological Locations: Boundaries and Grounds of a Field Science, ed. Akhil Gupta and James Ferguson (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1997), 5.
4. This argument has been laid out in Inderpal Grewal's Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), a provocative text that links travel with colonialism, masculinity, and class distinctions. Mary Louise Pratt's Imperial Eyes (New York: Routledge, 1992) also posits powerfully the relationship between travel and empire in the context of Africa and Latin America.
5. This argument has been laid out in Inderpal Grewal's Home and Harem: Nation, Gender, Empire, and the Cultures of Travel (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), a provocative text that links travel with colonialism, masculinity, and class distinctions. Mary Louise Pratt's Imperial Eyes (New York: Routledge, 1992) also posits powerfully the relationship between travel and empire in the context of Africa and Latin America.
6. Clifford Geertz has provided an evocative analysis on the history of this split regarding ethnography. Frederick Errington and Deborah Gewertz's article, "Tourism and Anthropology in a Post-Modern World" (Oceania 60, no. 1 [1989]: 37-54) offers insightful comparisons between tourists and anthropologists and the work/play dichotomy.
7. Anjun Appadurai, "Introduction: Place and Voice in Anthropological Theory," Cultural Anthropology 3, no. 1 (1988): 16-20.
8. Laurent Dubois, "'Man's Darkest Hours': Maleness, Travel, and Anthropology," in Women Writing Culture, ed. Ruth Behar and Deborah A. Gordon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 317.
9. Caren Kaplan has theorized the phrase "politics of location" by critiquing the notion of global sisterhood in her Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 25, and in her article "A World without Boundaries" (The Body Shop's Trans/National Geographies), Social Text 43 (summer 1995): 45-66, where she connects images presented by Green industries like the Body Shop with mass consumption and the valorization of adventure.
10. Caren Kaplan has theorized the phrase "politics of location" by critiquing the notion of global sisterhood in her Questions of Travel: Postmodern Discourses of Displacement (Durham: Duke University Press, 1996), 25, and in her article "A World without Boundaries" (The Body Shop's Trans/National Geographies), Social Text 43 (summer 1995): 45-66, where she connects images presented by Green industries like the Body Shop with mass consumption and the valorization of adventure.
11. These ideas are laid out in Kirin Narayan's "How Native Is a 'Native' Anthropologist?" American Anthropologist 95 (September 1993): 671-86, and "Refractions of the Field at Home: American Representations of Holy Men in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Cultural Anthropology 8, no. 4 (1993): 476-509; and Kamala Visweswaran's Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
12. These ideas are laid out in Kirin Narayan's "How Native Is a 'Native' Anthropologist?" American Anthropologist 95 (September 1993): 671-86, and "Refractions of the Field at Home: American Representations of Holy Men in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Cultural Anthropology 8, no. 4 (1993): 476-509; and Kamala Visweswaran's Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
13. These ideas are laid out in Kirin Narayan's "How Native Is a 'Native' Anthropologist?" American Anthropologist 95 (September 1993): 671-86, and "Refractions of the Field at Home: American Representations of Holy Men in the Nineteenth and Twentieth Centuries," Cultural Anthropology 8, no. 4 (1993): 476-509; and Kamala Visweswaran's Fictions of Feminist Ethnography (Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, 1994).
14. Mary John, "Postcolonial Feminists in the Western Intellectual Field: Anthropologists and Native Informants," Inscriptions 5, no. 3/4 (1989): 49-74.
15. Visweswaran, 113.
16. See Cynthia Enloe, Bananas, Beaches, and Bases: Making Feminist Sense of International Politics (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1990), 20. She writes that the freedom to travel has not been equitable or accessible for large masses of women. In the past, women traveled in disguise, donning male attire to prevent obstacles. Male fantasies of pursuing travel and adventure outside the confines of the home were considerably fueled by education and literature, even in boyhood. In recent times, the commodification of exotica and sexuality through tourism and other forms of travel has simultaneously been accompanied by the deterritorialization and marginalization of the same cultures that are marketed as landscapes of flight and freedom.
17. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
18. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
19. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
20. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
21. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
22. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
23. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
24. Travelogues on hunting include Arthur Brinckman, The Rifle in Kashmir (London: Smith, Elder, 1862); Henry Zouch Darrah, Sport in the Highlands of Kashmir (London: Rowland Ward, 1898); F.E. Adair, A Summer in High Asia (London: W. Thacker, 1899); and Theodore Roosevelt and Kermit Roosevelt, East of the Sun, and West of the Moon (New York: Blue Ribbon Books, 1926). C.G. Bruce's Twenty Years in the Himalayas (London: Edwin Arnold, 1910) is an account of his mountaineering venture; and Arthur McCormick's An Artist in the Himalayas (London: Unwin, 1895); Nicolas Roerich's Altai-Himalaya: A Travel Diary (New York: Frederick Stokes Co., 1929); and Marco Pallis's Peaks and Lamas (London: Cassell & Co., 1939) are memoirs by artists who traveled in Ladakh.
25. Peter Bishop, The Myth of Shangri-La: Tibet, Travel Writing, and the Western Creation of Sacred Landscape (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989).
26. The French traveler Alexandra David-Neel, studied Buddhism extensively and masqueraded as a pilgrim-mendicant, crossing perilous terrains and combating threats of exposure, to become the first woman to enter Lhasa in Tibet. In her classic travelogue, My Journey to Lhasa (New Delhi: Times Books International, 1991, originally published in 1927), David-Neel writes (9): "Many travelers had been stopped on their way to Lhasa and accepted failure. I would not. I had taken the challenge by my oath on the 'iron bridge' and was now ready to show what a woman can do."
27. John Crook, "Social Change in Indian Tibet," Social Science Information 19, no. 1 (1980): 139-66.
28. Agehananda Bharati, "Actual and Ideal Himalayas: Hindu Views of the Mountains," in Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface, ed. James Fisher (The Hague: Mouton, 1978), 77-82. For an interesting account of the portrayal of Tibetans as naturally eco-conscious, see Toni Huber's "Green Tibetans: A Brief Social History," in Tibetan Culture in the Diaspora, ed. Frank Korom (Vienna, Austria: Verlag Der Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften Wien, 1997), 103-19.
29. Agehananda Bharati, "Actual and Ideal Himalayas: Hindu Views of the Mountains," in Himalayan Anthropology: The Indo-Tibetan Interface, ed. James Fisher (The Hague: Mouton, 1978), 77-82. For an interesting account of the portrayal of Tibetans as naturally eco-conscious, see Toni Huber's "Green Tibetans: A Brief Social History," in Tibetan Culture in the Diaspora, ed. Frank Korom (Vienna, Austria: Verlag Der Osterreichischen Akademie Der Wissenschaften Wien, 1997), 103-19.
30. Records were obtained from the publication District Leh at a Glance, 1995-96 put out by the District Statistics and Evaluation Office, Leh, a subsidiary of the Government of Jammu and Kashmir Planning Department.
31. "Leh not affected due to Kargil Crisis," Daily Excelsior, 18 June 1999.
32. Mohammad Ashraf, quoted in BBC World News, 13 July 1999.
33. Prem Singh Jina's Tourism in Ladakh Himalaya (New Delhi: Indus Publishing Co., 1994), 665-66, contains additional information on Indian Airlines and some of the operating problems associated with Ladakh.
34. I have written about exile, tourism, and women's labor in "Shadow Work: Gender and the Marketplace in Ladakh," Anthropology of Work Review 16 (spring and summer 1995): 33-38.
35. Abdul Ghani Sheikh, Do Raha (Jammu and Kashmir Cultural Academy, 1993).
36. Keith Dowman, Sky Dancer: The Secret Life and Songs of the Lady Yeshe Tsogyel (Boston: Routledge & Kegan Paul, 1984).
37. This is a Ladakhi term meaning "sheep and goats" used with humor sometimes by travel agents to describe tourists in tour groups.
38. See Nicky Grist, "The Use of Obligatory Labour for Porterage in Pre-Independence Ladakh," in Tibetan Studies: Proceedings of the Sixth Seminar of the International Association for Tibetan Studies, Fagernes 1992, vol. 1, ed. Per Kvaerne (Oslo: Institute for Comparative Research in Human Culture, 1994), 264-74, which outlines the manner in which the colonial Dogra and British governments extracted labor from common Ladakhi households.
39. Good discussions of the paradoxical politics of identification of Western women travelers can be found in Sara Milk's Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); and Indira Ghose's Women Colonial Travellers in India: The Power of the Female Gaze (Delhi: Oxford University Press 1998).
40. Good discussions of the paradoxical politics of identification of Western women travelers can be found in Sara Milk's Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing and Colonialism (London: Routledge, 1991); and Indira Ghose's Women Colonial Travellers in India: The Power of the Female Gaze (Delhi: Oxford University Press 1998).
41. An insightful reading of this issue is provided by Mills in her analyses of the allegations that Alexandra David-Neel fabricated her visit to Lhasa.
42. Fanny Bullock Workman, In the Ice World of Himalaya: Among the Peaks and Passes of Ladakh, Nubra, Suru, and Baltistan (New York: Cassell & Co., 1900), 182.
43. Isabella Bishop Bird, Among the Tibetans (New York: Fleming H. Revell Co., 1894), 72.
44. Ghulam Rassul Gaewan, Servants of the Sahibs (Cambridge: W. Heffer & Sons, 1923).
45. Another autobiography by a Ladakhi caravaneer is Abdul Wahid Radhu's Caravane Tibetaine (Paris: Fayard, 1981). For further details on the subject, see Abdul Ghani Sheikh's "Some Well-Known Adventurers of Ladakh," in Recent Research on Ladakh 6, ed. Henry Osmaston and Nawang Tshering (Bristol: Bristol University, 1997), 231-38. A good analysis of Ladakhi autobiographical writing can be found in Martijn van Beek's "Worlds Apart: Autobiographies of Two Ladakhi Caravaneers Compared," Focaal 32 (1998): 51-69.
46. Another autobiography by a Ladakhi caravaneer is Abdul Wahid Radhu's Caravane Tibetaine (Paris: Fayard, 1981). For further details on the subject, see Abdul Ghani Sheikh's "Some Well-Known Adventurers of Ladakh," in Recent Research on Ladakh 6, ed. Henry Osmaston and Nawang Tshering (Bristol: Bristol University, 1997), 231-38. A good analysis of Ladakhi autobiographical writing can be found in Martijn van Beek's "Worlds Apart: Autobiographies of Two Ladakhi Caravaneers Compared," Focaal 32 (1998): 51-69.
47. Another autobiography by a Ladakhi caravaneer is Abdul Wahid Radhu's Caravane Tibetaine (Paris: Fayard, 1981). For further details on the subject, see Abdul Ghani Sheikh's "Some Well-Known Adventurers of Ladakh," in Recent Research on Ladakh 6, ed. Henry Osmaston and Nawang Tshering (Bristol: Bristol University, 1997), 231-38. A good analysis of Ladakhi autobiographical writing can be found in Martijn van Beek's "Worlds Apart: Autobiographies of Two Ladakhi Caravaneers Compared," Focaal 32 (1998): 51-69.
48. Sherry Ortner, Life and Death on Mt. Everest: Sherpas and Himalayan Mountaineering (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1999).
49. Edward Evans-Pritchard, The Nuer: A Description of the Modes of Livelihood and Political Institutions of a Nilotic People (1940; New York: Oxford University Press 1969), 10.
50. Claude Levi-Strauss, Tristes Tropiques (New York: Pocket Books, 1955), 4, 3.
51. Laurent Dubois, quoted in "Introduction: Out of Exile," in Women Writing Culture, ed. Ruth Behar and Deborah Gordon (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1995), 21.
52. But James Buzard, author of The Beaten Track: European Tourism, Literature and the Ways to "Culture," 1800-1918 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1993), proposes that modern guidebooks too adopted the appearance of scientific exactitude to gain legitimacy, presenting information in a standardized and straightfoward style rather than an impressionistic or personal one.
53. Mary Louise Pratt, "Fieldwork in Common Places," in Writing Culture: The Politics and Poetics of Ethnography, 27-50.
54. See Visweswaran; Behar and Janet Finn, "Ella Deloria and Mourning Dove: Writing for Cultures, Writing against the Grain," in Women Writing Culture, 131-47.
55. Elenore Smith Bowen, Return to Laughter (1954; New York: Doubleday, 1964).
56. Kirin Narayan, Love, Stars, and All That (New York: Pocket Books, 1994); and Dorinne Kondo, "Theater, Women of Color, and the Politics of Representation," in Women Writing Culture, 49-64.
57. Kirin Narayan, Love, Stars, and All That (New York: Pocket Books, 1994); and Dorinne Kondo, "Theater, Women of Color, and the Politics of Representation," in Women Writing Culture, 49-64.
58. Karen McCarthy Brown, A Vodou Priestess in Brooklyn (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1991).
59. Kirin Narayan, "Ethnography and Fiction: Where Is the Border?" Anthropology and Humanism Quarterly 24, no. 2 (1999): 134.
60. Toni Huber ("Why Can't Women Climb Pure Crystal Mountain? Remarks on Gender, Ritual, and Space at Tsa-ri," in Tibetan Studies, 350-71) illustrates how trade and pilgrimages were major forms of travel for the laity in Ladakh and in Tibet. However, although spiritual travel was permissible for women, landscape in Buddhist cosmology was coded by gender, and mountain pilgrimage sites were not equally accessible to women. Female pilgrims were not allowed to scale the higher circuits and summit of the famous Dag-pa Shel-ri ("Pure Crystal Mountain') pass in southern Tibet. Textual and oral explanations provided examples of divine retribution that befell women who breached these spatial limits, locating the cause for this exclusion in the weaknesses inherent in their bodies. Their dispositions were seen as potential sources for contaminating the beneficial energies and powers of sacred space. In recent years, diasporic Tibetan women, mostly from high-ranking families, have contributed to the production of literature by writing life stories that recount social conditions in precolonial Tibet and bear testimony to the traumas of exile. See, for example, Rinchin Dolma Taring's Daughter of Tibet (London: Wisdom Books, 1979); and Dorje Yuthok's House of the Turquoise Roof (Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications, 1990).
61. Toni Huber ("Why Can't Women Climb Pure Crystal Mountain? Remarks on Gender, Ritual, and Space at Tsa-ri," in Tibetan Studies, 350-71) illustrates how trade and pilgrimages were major forms of travel for the laity in Ladakh and in Tibet. However, although spiritual travel was permissible for women, landscape in Buddhist cosmology was coded by gender, and mountain pilgrimage sites were not equally accessible to women. Female pilgrims were not allowed to scale the higher circuits and summit of the famous Dag-pa Shel-ri ("Pure Crystal Mountain') pass in southern Tibet. Textual and oral explanations provided examples of divine retribution that befell women who breached these spatial limits, locating the cause for this exclusion in the weaknesses inherent in their bodies. Their dispositions were seen as potential sources for contaminating the beneficial energies and powers of sacred space. In recent years, diasporic Tibetan women, mostly from high-ranking families, have contributed to the production of literature by writing life stories that recount social conditions in precolonial Tibet and bear testimony to the traumas of exile. See, for example, Rinchin Dolma Taring's Daughter of Tibet (London: Wisdom Books, 1979); and Dorje Yuthok's House of the Turquoise Roof (Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications, 1990).
62. Toni Huber ("Why Can't Women Climb Pure Crystal Mountain? Remarks on Gender, Ritual, and Space at Tsa-ri," in Tibetan Studies, 350-71) illustrates how trade and pilgrimages were major forms of travel for the laity in Ladakh and in Tibet. However, although spiritual travel was permissible for women, landscape in Buddhist cosmology was coded by gender, and mountain pilgrimage sites were not equally accessible to women. Female pilgrims were not allowed to scale the higher circuits and summit of the famous Dag-pa Shel-ri ("Pure Crystal Mountain') pass in southern Tibet. Textual and oral explanations provided examples of divine retribution that befell women who breached these spatial limits, locating the cause for this exclusion in the weaknesses inherent in their bodies. Their dispositions were seen as potential sources for contaminating the beneficial energies and powers of sacred space. In recent years, diasporic Tibetan women, mostly from high-ranking families, have contributed to the production of literature by writing life stories that recount social conditions in precolonial Tibet and bear testimony to the traumas of exile. See, for example, Rinchin Dolma Taring's Daughter of Tibet (London: Wisdom Books, 1979); and Dorje Yuthok's House of the Turquoise Roof (Ithaca: Snow Lion Publications, 1990).
63. In Translated Woman: Crossing the Border with Esperanza's Story (Boston: Beacon Press, 1993), Ruth Behar uses the narrative style to convey the rage and redemption in the life story of a Mexican merchant woman, noting that even as her story has been recorded, materialized, and consumed, territorial borders itself are not open to women of her class and race.
64. Marc Auge, Non-Places: Introduction to an Anthropology of Supermodernity, trans. John Howe (London: Verso, 1992). I choose to read Auge's description of "non-places" as sites which appear so obscure and geared toward individualized experience that they conceal the fact that they are located within historical memory and national boundaries.
65. Pratt.