The impact of life events and chronic stressors on the development of depressive disorders, anxiety disorders and conduct disorders in adolescence: Results of a longitudinal study;Der einfluss kritischer lebensereignisse und chronischer belastungen auf die entwicklung von depressiven, angststörungen und störungen des sozialverhaltens im jugendalter: Ergebnisse einer längsschnittstudie

Zeitschrift fur Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie

Volumn 53, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 143-170

  Bull, Heike Dele ^a   Scheithauer, Herbert ^a   Groen, Gunter ^b   Petermann, Franz ^b  

^a FREIE UNIVERSITÄT BERLIN   (Germany)

^b UNIVERSITY OF BREMEN   (Germany)

Author keywords

Adolescents; Adverse life events; Anxiety disorders; Conduct disorders; Depression; Longitudinal study; Risk factors

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ANXIETY DISORDER; ARTICLE; CONDUCT DISORDER; DEPRESSION; DIAGNOSTIC AND STATISTICAL MANUAL OF MENTAL DISORDERS; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; FEMALE; HUMAN; LIFE EVENT; LONGITUDINAL STUDY; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MALE; MENTAL DISEASE; PATHOGENESIS; SCHOOL CHILD; STRESS;

EID: 17244367264     PISSN: 14318172     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (109)

1. Achenbach, T.M., McConaughy, S.H. & Howell, C.T. (1987). Child/adolescent behavioral and emotional problems: Implications of cross-informant correlations for situational specifity. Psychological Bulletin, 101, 213-232.
2. Adams, M. & Adams, J. (1991). Life events, depression, and perceived problem solving alternatives in adolescents. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 32, 811-820.
3. Adams, J. & Adams, M. (1993). Effects of a negative life event and negative perceived problem-solving alternatives on depression in adolescents: A prospective study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 743-747.
4. Adams, J. & Adams, M. (1996). The association among negative life events, perceived problem solving alternatives, depression, and suicidal ideation in adolescent psychiatric patients. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 37, 715-720.
5. American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1987). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 3th edition, revised (DSM-III-R). Washington DC: Author (dt. Bearbeitung von Wittchen, H.-U., Saß, H., Zaudig, M. & Koehler, K. [1989]. Diagnostisches und Statistisches Manual Psychischer Störungen [DSM-III-R], Weinheim: Beltz.)
6. American Psychiatric Association (APA) (1994). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 4th edition (DSM-IV). Washington DC: Author (dt. Bearbeitung von Sa, H., Wittchen, H.-U. & Zaudig, M. [1996]. Diagnostisches und Statistisches Manual Psychischer Störungen [DSM-IV], Göttingen: Hogrefe.)
7. Andreß, H.-J., Hagenaars, J.A. & Kühnel, S. (1997). Analyse von Tabellen und kategorialen Daten: log-lineare Modelle, latente Klassenanalyse, logistische Regression und GSK-Ansatz. Berlin: Springer.
8. Angold, A., Costello, E.J. & Worthman, C.M. (1998). Puberty and depression: The roles of age, pubertal status and pubertal timing. Psychological Medicine, 28, 51-61.
9. Angst, J., Sellaro, R. & Merikangas, K.R. (2002). Multimorbidity of psychiatric disorders as an indicator of clinical severity. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 252, 147-154.
10. Averill, J.R. (1973). Personal control over aversive stimuli and its relationship to stress. Psychological Bulletin, 80, 286-303.
11. Braukmann, W. & Filipp, S.-H. (1995). Personale Kontrolle und die Bewältigung kritischer Lebensereignisse. In S.-H. Filipp (Hrsg.), Kritische Lehensereignisse, 3. Aufl. (S. 233-251). Weinheim: Beltz.
12. Birmaher, B., Ryan, N.D., Williamson, D.E., Brent, D.A., Kaufman, J., Dahl, R.E., Perel, J. & Nelson, B. (1996). Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 35, 1427-1439.
13. Bodenmann, G., Schwerzman, S. & Cina, A. (2000). Kritische Lebensereignisse und Alltagsstress bei Depressiven und Remittierten. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 48, 1-17.
14. Braun-Scharm, H. (2003). Geschlechtsspezifische Ausprägung depressiver Störungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Monatszeitschrift Kinderheilkunde, 151, 628-632.
15. Brown, G.W. (1983). Accounts, meaning, and causality. In N. Gilbert & P. Abell (Eds.), Accounts and action (pp. 35-68). Aldershot: Grower.
16. Brown, G.W. (1993). Life events and affective disorder: Replications and limitations. Psychosomatic Medicine, 55, 248-259.
17. Brown, G.W., Harris, T.O. & Eales, M.J. (1993). Aetiology of anxiety and depressive disorders in an inner-city population: II. Comorbidity and adversity. Psychological Medicine, 23, 155-165.
18. Bull, H.D. (2004). Der relative Beitrag von Problemlösungsverhalten und Selbstkontrollüberzeugung zum Geschlechtsunterschied depressiver Störungen: Prospektive Studie über Vulnerabilitätsfaktoren als Moderatoren zwischen kritischen Lebensereignissen und chronischer Belastung und Depression. Universität Bremen, Studiengang Psychologie: Unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit.
19. Burton, E., Seeley, J.R. & Stice, E. (2004). A prospective test of the stress-buffering model of depression in adolescent girls: No support once again. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72, 689-697.
20. Cohen, P., Cohen, J., Kasen, S., Velez, C.N., Hartmark, C., Johnson, J., Rojas, M., Brook, J. & Struening, E.L. (1993). An epidemiological study of disorders in late childhood and adolescence: 1. Age- and gender-specific prevalence Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 34, 851-867.
21. Cohen, S. & Wills, T.A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98, 310-357.
22. Compas, B.E. (1987). Stress and life events during childhood and adolescence. Clinical Psychological Review, 7, 275-357.
23. Compas, B.E., Howell, D.C., Phares, V., Williams, R.A. & Giunta, C.T. (1989). Risk factors for emotional/behavioral problems in young adolescents: A prospective analysis of adolescents and parental stress and symptoms. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 57, 732-740.
24. Compas, B.E. & Wagner, B.M. (1991). Psychosocial stress during adolescence: Intrapersonal and interpersonal processes. In M.E. Colten & S. Gore (Eds.), Adolescent stress: Causes and consequences (pp. 67-86). New York: de Gruyter.
25. Costello, A., J., Edelbrock, C., Dulcan, R., K., Kalas, R. & Klaric, S.H. (1984). Development and testing of the NIMH Diagnostic Interview for Children. Rockville: National Institute of Mental Health.
26. Cyranowski, J.M., Frank, E., Young, E. & Shear, M.K. (2000). Adolescent onset of the gender difference in lifetime rates of Major Depression. A theoretical model. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 21-27.
27. Davila, J., Hammen, C., Paley, B., Daley, S.E. & Burge, D. (1995). Poor interpersonal problem solving as a mechanism of stress generation in depression among adolescent women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 104, 592-600.
28. Dohrenwend, B.S. & Dohrenwend, B.P. (Eds.). (1974). Stressful life events: Their nature and effects. New York: Wiley.
29. Eley, T.C. & Stevenson, J. (2000). Specific life events and chronic experiences differentially associated with depression and anxiety in young twins. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 28, 383-394.
30. Essau, C.A. (1999). Testinformationen: DIA-X-Interview von H.-U. Wittchen & H. Pfister (1997). Diagnostica, 45, 163-171.
31. Essau, C.A., Groen, G. & Petermann, F. (2002). Zum Zusammenhang von belastenden Lebensereignissen und Depression bei Kindern und Jugendlichen. In H. Braun-Scharm (Hrsg.), Depressionen und komorbide Störungen bei Kindern und Jugendlichen (S. 57-80). Stuttgart: Wissenschaftliche Verlagsgesellschaft.
32. Essau, C.A., Karpinski, N.A., Petermann, F. & Conradt, J. (1998). Häufigkeit und Komorbidität von Angststörungen bei Jugendlichen: Ergebnisse der Bremer Jugendstudie. Verhaltenstherapie, 8, 180-187.
33. Essau, C.E. & Petermann, U. (2002). Depression. In F. Petermann (Hrsg.), Lehrbuch der Klinischen Kinderpsychologie und -psychotherapie (5., korr. Aufl.) (S. 291-322). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
34. Feehan, M., McGee, R., Williams, S.M. & Nada-Raja, S. (1995). Models of adolescent psychopathology. Childhood risk and the transition to adulthood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 176, 142-149.
35. Filipp, S.-H. (1995). Ein allgemeines Modell für die Analyse kritischer Lebensereignisse. In S.-H. Filipp (Hrsg.), Kritische Lebensereignisse, 3. Aufl. (S. 293-326). München: Psychologie Verlags Union.
36. Foppa, K. (1975). Lernen - Gedächtnis - Verhalten. Köln: Kiepenheuer & Witsch.
37. Frank, E., Tu, X.M., Anderson, B., Reynolds, C.F., Karp, J.F., Mayo, A., Ritenour, A. & Kupfer, D.J. (1996). Effects of positive and negative life events on time to depression onset: An analysis of additivity and timing. Psychological Medicine, 26, 613-620.
38. Friis, R.H., Wittchen, H.-U., Pfister, H. & Lieb, R. (2002). Life events and changes in the course of depression in young adults. European Psychiatry, 17, 241-253.
39. Ge, X., Coger, R.D. & Elder, G.H. (2001). Pubertal transition, stressful life events, and the emergence of gender differences in adolescent depressive symptoms. Developmental Psychology, 37, 404-417.
40. Goodyer, I.M. (1990). Annotation: Recent life events and psychiatric disorder in school age children. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 31, 839-848.
41. nd ed. (pp. 204-232). Cambridge: University Press.
42. Goodyer, I.M., Herbert, J., Pamplin, A. & Altham, P.M.E. (2000). First-episode major depression in adolescents. Affective, cognitive and endocrine characteristics of risk status and predictors of onset. British Journal of Psychiatry, 176, 142-149.
43. Gore, S., Aseltine, R.H. Jr. & Colton, M.E. (1992). Social structure, life stress and depressive symptoms in a high school-aged population. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 33, 97-113.
44. Graber, J.A., Lewinsohn, P.M., Seeley, J.R. & Brooks-Gunn, J. (1997). Is psychopathology associated with the timing of pubertal development? Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 1768-1776.
45. Groen, G. & Petermann, F. (2002). Depressive Kinder und Jugendliche. Göttingen: Hogrefe.
46. Groen, G., Scheithauer, H., Essau, C.A. & Petermann, F. (1997). Epidemiologie depressiver Störungen im Kindes- und Jugendalter. Eine kritische Übersicht. Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie, Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie, 45, 115-144.
47. Gunderson, E.K.E. & Rahe, R.M. (Eds.). (1974). Life stress and illness. Springfield: Thomas.
48. Hankin, B.L. & Abramson, L.Y. (2001). Development of gender differences in depression: An elaborated cognitive vulnerability-transactional stress theory. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 773-796.
49. Hankin, B.L., Abramson, L.Y. & Siler, M. (2001). A prospective test of the hopelessness theory of depression in adolescence. Cognitive Therapy and Research, 25, 607-632.
50. Harrington, R., Fudge, H., Rutter, M., Pickles, A. & Hill, J. (1991). Adult outcomes of childhood adolescent depression: II. Links with antisocial disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 30, 434-439.
51. Hauser, S.T. & Bowlds, M.K. (1990). Stress, coping, and adaptation. In S.S. Feldman & G.R. Elliott (Eds.), At the threshold (pp. 388-413). Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
52. Hautzinger, M. (1990). Bewältigung von Belastungen: Selbstgesteuerte Überwindung von Depressivität und Prävention psychischer Beeinträchtigungen. Beiträge zur Verhaltensmedizin, Bd. I. Regensburg: Roderer.
53. Holahan, C. & Moos, R. (2000). Life stressors, personal and social resources, and depression: A 4-year structural model. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 100, 31-38.
54. Hoffmann, J.P. & Su, S.S. (1997). The conditional effects of stress on delinquent and drug use: A strain theory assessment of sex differences. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 34, 46-78.
55. Jackson, Y. & Warren, J.S. (2000). Appraisal, social support, and life events: Predicting outcome behavior in school-age children. Child Development, 71, 1441-1457.
56. Johnson, J.H. (1986). Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
57. Johnson, J.H. & McCutcheon, S.M. (1980). Assessing life stress in older children and adolescents: preliminary findings with the Life Events Checklist. In I.G. Sarason & C.D. Spielberger (Eds.), Stress and anxiety, Vol. VII (pp. 111-125). Washington, DC: Hemisphere Publishing.
58. Kendler, K.S., Karkowski, L.M. & Prescott, C.A. (1999). Causal relationship between stressful life events and the onset of major depression. American Journal of Psychiatry, 156, 837-841.
59. Kessler, R.C. (1997). The effects of stressful life events on depression. Annual Review of Psychology, 48, 191-214.
60. Kessler, R.C., McGonagle, K.A., Swartz, M., Blazer, D.G. & Nelson, C.B. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey, I: lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders, 29, 85-96.
61. Kim, K.J., Conger, R.D., Elder, G.H.Jr. & Lorenz, F.O. (2003). Reciprocal influences between stressful life events and adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Child Development, 74, 127-143.
62. Klein, R.G. (1991). Parent-child agreement in clinical assessment of anxiety and other psychopathology: A review. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 5, 187-198.
63. Leadbeater, B.J., Kupermine, G.P., Blatt, S.J. & Hertzog, C. (1999). A multivariate model of gender differences in adolescents' internalizing and externalizing problems. Developmental Psychology, 35, 1268-1282.
64. Maier-Diewald, W., Wittchen, H.-U., Hecht, H. & Werner-Eilert, K. (1983). Die Münchner Ereignisliste (MEL) - Anwendungs-manual. München: Max-Planck-Institut für Psychiatrie.
65. Marcotte, D., Fortin, L., Potvin, P. & Papillon, M. (2002). Gender differences in depressive symptoms during adolescence: Role of gender-typed characteristics, selfesteem, body image, stressful life events, and pubertal status. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 10, 29-42.
66. McGee, R., Feehan, M., Williams, S. & Anderson, J. (1992). DSM-III disorders from age 11 to age 15 years: The Dunedin study. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 50-59.
67. Monroe, S.M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J.R. & Lewinsohn, P.M. (1999). Life events and depression in adolescence: Relationship loss as a prospective risk factor for first onset of major depressive disorder. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1O8, 606-614.
68. Nezu, A.M. (1987). A problem-solving formulation of depression: A literature review and proposal of a pluralistic model. Clinical Psychology Review, 7, 121-144.
69. Nezu, A.M. & Ronan, G.F. (1985). Life stress, current problems, problem solving, and depressive symptoms: An integrative model. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 53, 693-697.
70. Newman, D.L., Moffitt, T.E., Caspi, A. & Silva, P.A. (1998). Comorbid mental disorders: Implications for treatment and sample selection. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 107, 305-311.
71. Newman, D.L., Moffitt, T.E., Silva, P.A., Caspi, A., Magdol, L. & Stanton, W.R. (1996). Psychiatric disorder in a birth cohort of young adults: Prevalence, comorbidity, clinical significance, and new case incidence from ages 11 to 21. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 552-562.
72. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1995). Gender differences in coping with depression across the lifespan. Depression, 3, 81-90.
73. Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (2000). The role of rumination in depressive disorders and mixed anxiety/depressive symptoms. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 504-511.
74. Paternoster, R. & Mazerolle, P. (1994). General strain theory and delinquency: A replication and extension. Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency, 31, 235-263.
75. Patton, G.C., Coffey, C., Posterino, M., Carlin, J.B. & Bowes, G. (2003). Life events and early onset depression: Cause or consequence? Psychological Medicine, 33, 1203-1210.
76. Petermann, F. & Essau, C.A. (1995). Angst und Depression bei Jugendlichen: Die Bremer Jugendstudie. Unveröffentlichter DFG-Antrag.
77. Petermann, F., Essau, C.A., Turbanisch, U., Conradt, J. & Groen, G. (1999). Komorbidität, Risikofaktoren und Verlauf aggressiven Verhaltens: Ergebnisse der Bremer Jugendstudie. Kindheit und Entwicklung, 8, 49-58.
78. Petersen, A.C., Sarigiani, P.A. & Kennedy, R.E. (1991). Adolescent depression: Why more girls? Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 20, 247-271.
79. Renouf, A.G., Kovacs, M. & Mukerji, P. (1997). Relationship of depressive, conduct, and comorbid disorders and social functioning in childhood. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 36, 998-1004.
80. Rudolph, K.D. (2002). Gender differences in emotional responses to interpersonal stress during adolescence. Journal of Adolescent Health, 30, 3-13.
81. Rutter, M. (1986). The developmental psychopathology of depression: Issues and perspectives. In M. Rutter, C.E. Izard & P.B. Read (Eds.), Depression in young people: Developmental and clinical perspectives. New York: Guilford Press.
82. Sameroff, A.J., Seifer, R. & Bartko, W.T. (1997). Environmental perspectives on adaptation during childhood and adolescence. In S.S. Luthar, J.A. Burack, D. Cicchetti & J.R. Weisz (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology. Perspectives on adjustment, risk, and disorder (pp. 507-526). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
83. Scarr, S. & Yee, D. (1980). Heritability and educational policy: Genetic and environmental effects in IQ, aptitude and achievement. Educational Psychologist, 15, 1-22.
84. Scheithauer, H., Bull, H.D. & Petermann, F. (in Vorbereitung). Längsschnittanalyse zu Vulnerabilitätsfaktoren (Problemlö sungsverhalten und Selbstkontrollüberzeugung) als Moderatoren zwischen kritischen Lebensereignissen, chronischen Belastungen und psychischen Störungen im Jugendalter.
85. Scheithauer, H. & Groen, G. (1997). Zum Zusammenhang von Depressiven Störungen, kritischen Lebensereignissen und Problemlösungsverhalten bei Jugendlichen. Ergebnisse einer Untersuchung an Bremer Schulen im Rahmen der Bremer Jugendstudie (BJS). Universität Bremen, Studiengang Psychologie: Unveröffentlichte Diplomarbeit.
86. Scheithauer, H. & Petermann, F. (1999). Zur Wirkungsweise von Risiko- und Schutzfaktoren in der Entwicklung von Kindern und Jugendlichen. Kindheit und Entwicklung, 8, 3-14.
87. Scheithauer, H. & Petermann, F. (2002). Aggression. In F. Petermann (Hrsg.), Lehrbuch der Klinischen Kinderpsychologie und -psychotherapie (5., korr. Aufl.) (S. 187-226). Göttingen: Hogrefe.
88. Scheithauer, H. & Petermann, F. (2004). Aggressiv-dissoziales Verhalten. In F. Petermann, K. Niebank & H. Scheithauer (Hrsg.), Entwicklungswissenschaft. Entwicklungspsychologie - Genetik - Neuropsychologie (S. 367-410). Berlin: Springer.
89. Seiffge-Krenke, I. & Klessinger, N. (2001). Gibt es geschlechtsspezifische Faktoren in der Vorhersage depressiver Symptome im Jugendalter? Zeitschrift für Klinische Psychologie und Psychotherapie, 30, 22-32.
90. Seiffge-Krenke, I., Kollmar F. & Meiser, T. (1997). Der Einfluß von verschiedenen Typen von Stressoren und Problemmeidung auf die Symptombelastung von Jugendlichen: Eine längsschnittliche Analyse. Zeitschrift für Gesundheitspsychologie, 5, 130-147.
91. Seiffge-Krenke, I. & Stemmler, M. (2002). Factors contributing to gender differences in depressive symptoms: A test of three developmental models. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 31, 405-417.
92. Shahar, G. & Priel, B. (2002). Positive life events and adolescent emotional distress: In search of protective-interactive processes. Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, 21, 645-668.
93. Steinhausen, H.-C. & Radtke, B. (1987). Lebensereignisse und kinderpsychiatrische Störungen. Zeitschrift für klinische Psychologie, 16, 264-274.
94. Steinhausen, H.-C. & Winkler Metzke, C. (2000). Adolescent self-rated depressive symptoms in a Swiss epidemiological study. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 427-440.
95. Stockard, J., Lang, D. & Wood, J.W. (1985). Academic merit, status variables, and student's grades. Journal of Research and Development in Education, 18, 12-20.
96. Susman, E.J., Nottelmann, E.D., Inoff-Germain, G., Dorn, L. & Chrousos, G.P. (1987). Hormonal influences on aspects of psychological development during adolescence. Journal of Adolescence health and Care, 8, 492-504.
97. Swearingen, E.M. & Cohen, L.H. (1985). Life events and psychological distress: A prospective study of young adolescents. Developmental Psychology, 21, 1045-1054.
98. Tennant, C. (2002). Life events, stress and depression. A review of recent findings. Australian and New Zealand Journal of Psychiatry, 36, 173-182.
99. Touliatos, J., Lindholm, B.W. & Rich, A. (1978). Influence of family background on scholastic achievement:. Journal of Experimental Education, 46, 22-27.
100. Tram, J.M. & Cole, D.A. (2000). Self-perceived competence and the relation between life events and depressive symptoms in adolescence: Mediator or moderator? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 109, 753-760.
101. Urban, D. (1993). Logit-Analyse: Statistische Verfahren zur Analyse von Modellen mit qualitativen Response-Variablen. Stuttgart: G. Fischer.
102. Vaux, A. & Ruggiero, M. (1983). Stressful life change and delinquent behavior. American Journal of Community Psychology, 11, 169-183.
103. Waaktaar, T., Borge, A.I.H., Fundingsrud, H.P., Christie, H.J. & Togersen, S. (2004). The role of stressful life events in the development of depressive symptoms in adolescence - A longitudinal community study. Journal of Adolescence, 27, 153-163.
104. Weissman, M.M., Bruce, M.L., Leaf, P.J., Florio, L.P. & Holzer, C. (1991). Affective disorders. In L.N. Robinson, D.A. Regier (Eds.), Psychiatric disorders in America (pp. 53-80). New York: The Free Press.
105. Williamson, D.E., Birmaher, B., Anderson, B.P., Al-Shabbout, M. & Ryan, N.D. (1995). Stressful life events in depressed adolescents: The role of dependent events during the depressive episode. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescents Psychiatry, 34, 591-597.
106. Williamson, D.E., Birmaher, B., Frank, E., Anderson, B.P., Matty, M.K. & Kupfer, D.J. (1998). Nature of life events and difficulties in depressed adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines, 37, 1049-1057.
107. Wittchen, H.-U., Beloch, E., Garczynski, E., Holly, A., Lachner, G., Perkonigg, A., Pfütze, E.-M., Schuster, P., Vodermaier, A., Wunderlich, U. & Zieglgänsberger, S. (1995). Manual zum Münchner Composite International Diagnostic Interview (MCIDI), Version 2.0, 1/95. München: Max-Planck-Institut für Psychiatrie, Klinische Psychologie.
108. Wittchen, H.-U. & Pfister, H. (1997). Diagnostisches Expertensystem für psychische Störungen (DIA-X). Frankfurt: Sweets.
109. Wortman, C.B. & Brehm, J.W. (1975). Responses to uncontrollable outcomes: An integration of reactance theory and the learned helplessness model. In L. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, Vol. 8 (pp. 277-336). New York: Wiley.