Childhood and adolescent depression: A review of the past 10 years. Part I

Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry

Volumn 35, Issue 11, 1996, Pages 1427-1439

  Birmaher, Boris ^a,b   Ryan, Neal D ^a   Williamson, Douglas E ^a   Brent, David A ^a   Kaufman, Joan ^a   Dahl, Ronald E ^a   Perel, James ^a   Nelson, Beverly ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF PITTSBURGH   (United States)

Author keywords

adolescents; children; correlates; dysthymic disorder; major depressive disorder; progress

Indexed keywords

ACADEMIC ACHIEVEMENT; ARTICLE; CHILD PSYCHIATRY; DEPRESSION; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE COURSE; DYSTHYMIA; HUMAN; MANIC DEPRESSIVE PSYCHOSIS; PREVALENCE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RISK ASSESSMENT; SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY; SUBSTANCE ABUSE; SUICIDE;

EID: 0029848757     PISSN: 08908567     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/00004583-199611000-00011     Document Type: Article

References (199)

1. Adrian C, Hammen C (1993), Stress exposure and stress generation in children of depressed mothers. J Consult Clin Psychol 61:354-359
2. Akiskal HS, Maser JD, Zeller PJ et al. (1995), Switching from "unipolar" to bipolar II: an 11-year prospective study of clinical and temperamental predictors in 559 patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:114-123
3. American Psychiatric Association (1994), Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edition (DSM-IV). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Association
4. Anderson JC, McGee R (1994), Comorbidity of depression in children and adolescents. In: Handbook of Depression in Children and Adolescents, Reynolds WM, Johnson HF, eds. New York: Plenum, pp 581-601
5. Angold A, Costello EJ (1993), Depressive comorbidity in children and adolescents. Empirical, theoretical, and methodological issues. Am J Psychiatry 150:1779-1791
6. Appleboon-Fondu J, Kerkofs M, Mendlewicz J (1988), Depression in adolescents and young adults: polysomnographic and neuroendocrine aspects. J Affect Disord 14:35-40
7. Asarnow JR, Bates S (1988), Depression in child psychiatric inpatients: cognitive and attributional patterns. J Abnorm Child Psychol 16:601-615
8. Asarnow JR, Ben-Meir S (1988), Children with schizophrenia spectrum and depressive disorders: a comparative study of premorbid adjustment, onset pattern and severity of impairment. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 29:477-488
9. Asarnow JR, Carlson G, Guthrie D (1987), Coping strategies, self-perceptions, hopelessness, and perceived family environments in depressed and suicidal children. J Consult Clin Psychol 55:361-366
10. Asarnow JR, Goldstein M, Marshall V, Weber E (1990), Mother-child dynamics in early onset depression and childhood schizophrenia spectrum disorders. Dev Psychopathol 2:71-84
11. Asarnow JR, Tompson M, Hamilton EB, Goldstein MJ, Guthrie D (1994), Family-expressed emotion, childhood-onset depression, and childhood-onset schizophrenia spectrum disorders: is expressed emotion a non-specific correlate of child psychopathology or a specific risk factor for depression? J Abnorm Child Psychol 22:129-146
12. Beck AT (1987), Cognitive models of depression. J Cognit Psychother Int Q 1:5-37
13. Biederman J, Faraone S, Mick E, Lelon E (1995a), Psychiatric comorbidity among referred juveniles with major depression: fact or artifact? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:579-590
14. Biederman J, Milberger S, Faraone SV et al. (1995b), Family-environment risk factors for attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:464-470
15. Biederman J, Rosenbaum JF, Bolduc EA, Faraone SV, Hirshfeld DR (1991), A high risk study of young children of parents with panic disorder and agoraphobia with and without comorbid depression. Psychiatry Res 37:333-348
16. Billing AG, Moos RH (1986), Children of parents with unipolar depression: a controlled 1-year follow up. J Abnorm Child Psychol 14:149-166
17. Bird HR, Canino G, Rubio-Stipec M et al. (1988), Estimates of the prevalence of childhood maladjustment in a community survey in Puerto Rico: the use of combined measures. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45:1120-1126
18. Birmaher B, Dahl RE, Ryan ND et al. (1992a), Dexamethasone suppression test in adolescents with major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 149:1040-1045
19. Birmaher B, Rabin BS, Garcia MR et al. (1994), Cellular immunity in depressed conduct disorder and normal adolescents: role of adverse life events. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:671-678
20. Birmaher B, Ryan N, Dahl R et al. (1996), Corticotropin releasing hormone challenge test in prepubertal major depression. Biol Psychiatry 39:267-277
21. Birmaher B, Ryan ND, Dahl RE et al. (1992b), Dexamethasone suppression test in children with major depressive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:291-297
22. Birmaher B, Williamson D, Anderson B, Frank E (1995), Life events in depressed and normal adolescents using the Life Events and Difficulties Schedule. Presented at the Depression Consortium, Pittsburgh
23. Blantz B, Schmidt MH, Esser G (1991), Familial adversities and child psychiatric disorders. J Child Psychol Psychiatr Disord 32:939-950
24. Brent DA, Birmaher B, Holder D, Johnson B, Kolko D (1995), A clinical psychotherapy trial for adolescent major depression. Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New Orleans
25. Brent DA, Perper J, Johnson B et al. (1993a), Personality disorder, personality traits, impulsive violence and completed suicide in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:69-75
26. Brent DA, Perper JA, Allman CJ (1987), Alcohol, firearms, and suicide among youth: temporal trends in Allegheny County, Pennsylvania, 1960 to 1983. JAMA 257:3369-3372
27. Brent DA, Perper JA, Goldstein CE et al. (1988), Risk factors for adolescent suicide: a comparison of adolescent suicide victims with suicidal inpatients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 45:581-588
28. Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G et al. (1993b), Psychiatric risk factors for adolescent suicide: a case-control study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:521-529
29. Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G et al. (1993c), Psychiatric sequelae to the loss of an adolescent peer to suicide. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:509-517
30. Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G et al. (1993d), Adolescent witness to a peer suicide. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:1184-1188
31. Brent DA, Perper JA, Moritz G, Baugher M, Schweers J, Roth C (1994), Suicide in affectively ill adolescents: a case-control study. J Affect Disord 31:193-202
32. Breslau N, Schultz L, Peterson E (1995), Sex differences in depression: a role for preexisting anxiety. Psychiatry Res 58:1-12
33. Brown GW, Harris TO (1989), Life Events and Illness. New York: Guilford
34. Brown GW, Harris TO (1993), Aetiology of anxiety and depressive disorders in an inner-city population. I. Early adversity. Psychol Med 23:143-154
35. Carlson GA, Kashani JH (1988), Phenomenology of major depression from childhood through adulthood: analysis of three studies. Am J Psychiatry 145:1222-1225
36. Casat CD, Arana GD, Powel K (1989), The DST in children and adolescents with major depressive disorder. Am J Psychiatry 146:503-507
37. Centers for Disease Control (1994), Deaths resulting from firearm- and motor-vehicle-related injuries - United States, 1968-1991. JAMA 271:495-496
38. Clarke GN, Hops H, Lewinsohn PM, Andrews JA, Seeley JR, Williams J (1992), Cognitive behavioral group treatment of adolescent depression: prediction of outcome. Behav Ther 23:341-354
39. Coryell W, Keller M, Endicott J, Andreasen N, Clayton P, Hirschfeld R (1989), Bipolar II illness: course and outcome over a five-year period. Psychol Med 19:129-141
40. Dahl RE, Kaufman J, Ryan ND et al. (1992a), The dexamethasone suppression test in children and adolescents: a review and a controlled study. Biol Psychiatry 32:109-126
41. Dahl RE, Matty MK, Birmaher B, Al-Shabbout M, Williamson DE, Ryan ND (1996), Sleep onset in depressed adolescents. Biol Psychiatry 39:400-410
42. Dahl RE, Puig-Antich J, Ryan ND et al. (1990), EEG sleep in adolescents with major depression: the role of suicidality and inpatient status. J Affect Disord 19:63-75
43. Dahl RE, Ryan ND, Birmaher B et al. (1991a), EEG sleep measures in prepubertal depression. Psychiatry Res 38:201-214
44. Dahl RE, Ryan ND, Puig-Antich J et al. (1991b), 24-Hour Cortisol measures in adolescents with major depression: a controlled study. Biol Psychiatry 30:25-36
45. Dahl RE, Ryan ND, Williamson DE et al. (1992b), The regulation of sleep and growth hormone in adolescent depression. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:615-621
46. De Bellis MD, Chrousos GP, Dorn LD et al. (1994), Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis dysregulation in sexually abused girls. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 78:249-255
47. De Bellis MD, Dahl RE, Perel JM et al. (1996), Nocturnal ACTH, cortisol, growth hormone, and prolactin secretion in prepubertal depression. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 35:1130-1138
48. Deykin EY, Buka SL, Zeena TH (1992), Depressive illness among chemically dependent adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 149:1341-1347
49. Downey G, Coyne JC (1990), Children of depressed parents: an integrative review. Psychol Bull 108:50-76
50. Emslie GJ, Rush AJ, Weinberg WA, Rimelmann JW, Roffwarg HP (1990), Children with major depression show reduced rapid eye movement latencies. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:119-124
51. Emslie GJ, Rush AJ, Weinberg WA, Rintelmann JW, Roffwarg HP (1994), Sleep EEG features of adolescents with major depression. Biol Psychiatry 36:573-581
52. Fergusson DM, Lynskey MT (1995), Childhood circumstances, adolescent adjustment, and suicide attempts in a New Zealand birth cohort. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:612-622
53. Ferro T, Carlson GA, Grayson P, Klein DN (1994), Depressive disorders: distinctions in children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:664-670
54. Fleming J, Boyle M, Offord D (1993), The outcome of adolescent depression in the Ontario Child Health Study follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:28-33
55. Fleming JE, Offord DR (1990), Epidemiology of childhood depressive disorders: a critical review. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29:571-580
56. Frank E, Anderson B, Reynold CF, Ritenour A, Kupfer DJ (1994), Life events and the Research Diagnostic Criteria endogenous subtype. A confirmation of the distinction using the Bellford College Methods. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:519-524
57. *Garber J, Hilsman R (1992), Cognition, stress, and depression in children and adolescents. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am 1:129-167
58. Garbet J, Hollon SD (1991), What can specificity designs say about causality in psychopathology research? Psychol Bull 110:129-136
59. Garber J, Kriss MR, Hoch M, Lindholm L (1988), Recurrent depression in adolescents: a follow-up study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:49-54
60. Garber J, Weiss B, Shanley N (1993), Cognition, depressive symptoms, and development in adolescents. J Abnorm Psychol 102:47-57
61. Geller B, Fox LW, Clark KA (1994), Rate and predictors of prepubertal bipolarity during follow-up of 6-to 12-year-old depressed children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:461-468
62. Gershon ES, Hamovit J, Guroff JJ et al. (1982), A family study of schizoaffective, bipolar I, bipolar II, unipolar, and normal control probands. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:1157-1167
63. Gershon ES, Hamovit JH, Guroff JJ, Nurnberger JI (1987), Birth-cohort changes in manic and depressive disorders in relatives of bipolar and schizoaffective patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:314-319
64. Gladstone TR, Kaslow NJ (1995), Depression and attributions in children and adolescents: a meta-analytic review. J Abnorm Child Psychol 23:597-606
65. Goetz RR, Puig-Antich J, Ryan N et al. (1987), Electroencephalographic sleep of adolescents with major depression and normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:61-68
66. Goodman SH, Brumley HE (1990), Schizophrenic and depressed mothers: relational deficits in parenting. J Dev Psychol 26:31-39
67. Goodyer I, Kolvin I, Gatzanis S (1985), Recent undesirable life events and psychiatric disorder in childhood and adolescence. Br J Psychiatry 147:517-523
68. Goodyer IM, Wright C, AItham PME (1988), Maternal adversity and recent stressful life events in anxious and depressed children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 29:651-667
69. Gotlib IH, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR, Rohde P, Redner JE (1993), Negative cognition and attributional style in depressed adolescents: an examination of stability and specificity. J Abnorm Psychol 102:607-615
70. Hagnell O, Lanke J, Robman B, Ojesjo L (1982), Are we entering an age of melancholy? Depressive illnesses in a prospective epidemiological study over 25 years: the Lundby study. Swed Psychol Med 12:279-289
71. Hammen C (1988), Self-cognitions, stressful events, and the prediction of depression in children of depressed mothers. J Abnorm Child Psychol 16:347-360
72. Hammen C (1990), Cognitive approaches to depression in children: current findings and new directions. In: Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, Lahey B, Kazdin A, eds. New York: Plenum, pp 139-173
73. Hammen C (1991), Generation of stress in the course of unipolar depression. J Abnorm Psychol 100:555-561
74. Hammen C, Burge D, Burney E, Adrian C (1990a), Longitudinal study of diagnoses in children of women with unipolar and bipolar affective disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:1112-1117
75. Hammen C, Burge D, Stanbury K (1990b), Relationship of mother and child variables to child outcomes in a high-risk sample: a causal modeling analysis. J Dev Psychol 26:24-30
76. Hammen C, Mayol A, deMayo R, Marks T (1986a), Initial symptom levels and the life-event-depression relationship. J Abnorm Psychol 95:114-122
77. Hammen C, Miklowitz DH, Dyck DG (1986b), Stability and severity parameters of depressive self-schema responding. J Soc Clin Psychol 4:23-45
78. Harrington R, Fudge H, Rutter M, Pickles A, Hill J (1990), Adult outcomes of child and adolescent depression: I. Psychiatric status. Arch Gen Psychiatry 47:465-473
79. Harrington R, Fudge H, Rutter M, Pickles A, Hill J (1991), Adult outcome of childhood and adolescent depression II. Links with antisocial disorders. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:434-439
80. Hilsman R, Garber J (1995), A test of the cognitive diathesis-stress model of depression in children: academic stressors, attributional style, perceived competence, and control. J Pers Soc Psychol 69:370-380
81. Hughes C, Preskorn S, Weller E, Weller R, Hassanein R, Tucker S (1990), The effect of concomitant disorders in childhood depression on predicting treatment response. Psychopharmacol Bull 26:235-238
82. Jensen JB, Garfinkel BD (1990), Growth hormone dysregulation in children with major depressive disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29:295-301
83. Joyce PR, Oakley-Browne MA, Wells JE, Bushnell JA, Hornblow AR (1990), Birth cohort trends in major depression: increasing rates and earlier onset in New Zeland. J Affect Disord 18:83-89
84. Kahn AU, Todd S (1990), Polysomnographic findings in adolescents with major depression. Psychiatry Res 33:313-320
85. Kandel DB, Davies M (1986), Adult sequelae of adolescent depressive symptoms. Arch Gen Psychiatry 43:255-262
86. Kashani J, Burback D, Rosenberg T (1988), Perceptions of family conflict resolution and depressive symptomatology in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:42-48
87. Kashani JH, Beck NC, Hoeper EW et al. (1987a), Psychiatric disorders in a community sample of adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 144:584-589
88. Kashani JH, Carlson GA, Beck NC et al. (1987b), Depression, depressive symptoms, and depressed mood among a community sample of adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 144:931-934
89. Kaufman J (1991), Depressive disorders in maltreated children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:257-265
90. Kaufman J, Birmaher B, Dahl R et al. (1995), Corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) in maltreated depressed children. Presented at the 42nd Annual Meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, New Orleans
91. Kaufman J, Brent D, Birmaher B et al. (1993), Measures of family adversity, clinical symptomatology, and cortisol secretion in a sample of preadolescent depressed children. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Society for Research in Child and Adolescent Psychopathology (SRCAP), Santa Fe, NM
92. Kazdin AE, Colbus D, Rodgers A (1986), Assessment of depression and diagnosis of depressive disorders among psychiatrically disturbed children. J Abnorm Child Psychol 14:499-515
93. Kazdin AE, French NH, Unis AS, Esveldt-Dawson K, Sherick RB (1983), Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed inpatient children. J Consult Clin Psychol 55:504-510
94. Keller MB, Beardsley W, Lavori PW, Wunder J, Drs DL, Samuelson H (1988), Course of major depression in non-referred adolescents: a retrospective study. J Affect Disord 15:235-243
95. Kendall PC, Kortlander E, Chansky TE, Brady EU (1992), Comorbidity of anxiety and depression in youth: treatment implications. J Consult Clin Psychol 60:869-880
96. Kendler KS (1995), Genetic epidemiology in psychiatry. Taking both genes and environment seriously. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:895-899
97. Kendler KS, Neale MC, Kessler RC, Heath AC, Eaves LJ (1992), Childhood parental loss and adult psychopathology in women: a twin study perspective. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:109-116
98. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Nelson CB, Hughes M, Swartz M, Blazer DG (1994a), Sex and depression in the national comorbidity survey: II. Cohort effects. J Affect Disord 30:15-26
99. Kessler RC, McGonagle KA, Zhao S et al. (1994b), Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:8-19
100. King L, Pittman G (1970), A six-year follow-up study of 65 adolescent patients. Arch Gen Psychiatry 22:230-236
101. Klein DN, Riso LP, Donaldson SK et al. (1995), Family study of early-onset dysthymia: mood and personality disorders in relatives of outpatients with dysthymia and episodic major depression and normal controls. Arch Gen Psychiatry 52:487-496
102. Klein DN, Taylor EB, Dickstein S, Harding K (1988a), The early-late onset distinction in DSM-III-R dysthymia. J Affect Disord 14:25-33
103. Klein DN, Taylor EB, Dickstein S, Harding K (1988b), Primary early-onset dysthymia: comparison with primary nonbipolar nonchronic major depression on demographic, clinical, familial, personality, and socioenvironmental characteristics and short-tetm outcome. J Abnorm Psychol 97:387-398
104. Klerman GL, Weissman MM (1988), Increasing rates of depression. JAMA 261:2229-2235
105. Kolvin I, Barrett ML, Bhate SR (1991), The Newcastle Child Depression Project: diagnosis and classification of depression. Br J Psychiatry 159(suppl):9-21
106. *Kovacs M, Akiskal S, Gatsonis C, Parrone PL (1994a), Childhood-onset dysthymic disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 51:365-374
107. Kovacs M, Feinberg TL, Crouse-Novak M, Paulauskas SL, Pollock M, Finkelstein R (1984a), Depressive disorders in childhood. II. A longitudinal study of the risk for a subsequent major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:643-649
108. Kovacs M, Feinberg TL, Crouse-Novak MA, Paulauskas SL, Finkelstein R (1984b), Depressive disorders in childhood. I. A longitudinal prospective study of characteristics and recovery. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:229-237
109. Kovacs M, Gatsonis C (1989), Stability and change in childhood-onset depressive disorders: longitudinal course as a diagnostic validator. In: The Validity of Psychiatric Diagnosis, Robins LN, Barrett JE, eds. New York: Raven Press, pp 57-75
110. Kovacs M, Gatsonis C (1994), Secular trends in age at onset of major depressive disorder in a clinical sample of children. J Psychiatr Res 28:319-329
111. Kovacs M, Gatsonis C, Paulauskas S, Richards C (1989), Depressive disorders in childhood: IV. A longitudinal study of comorbidity with and risk for anxiety disorders. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:776-782
112. Kovacs M, Goldston D, Gatsonis C (1993), Suicidal behaviors and childhood-onset depressive disorders: a longitudinal investigation. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:8-20
113. Kovacs M, Krol RSM, Voti L (1994b), Early onset psychopathology and the risk for teenage pregnancy among clinically referred girls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:106-122
114. *Kovacs M, Paulauskas S, Gatsonis C, Richards C (1988), Depressive disorders in childhood: III. A longitudinal study of comorbidity with and risk for conduct disorders. J Affect Disord 15:205-217
115. Kutcher S, Malkin D, Silverberg J et al. (1991). Nocturnal cortisol, thyroid stimulating hormone, and growth hormone secretory profiles in depressed adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:407-414
116. Kutchet S, Williamson P, Marton P, Szali J (1992), REM latency in endogenously depressed adolescents. Br J Psychiatry 161:399-402
117. Kutcher SP, Marton P (1991), Affective disorders in first-degree relatives of adolescent onset bipolar, unipolar and normal controls. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 30:75-78
118. Kutcher SP, Marton P, Korenblum M (1989), Relationship between psychiatric illness and conduct disorder in adolescents. Can J Psychiatry 34:526-529
119. Kutcher SP, Williamson P, Silverberg J, Marton P, Malkin D, Malkin A (1988), Nocturnal growth hormone secretion in depressed older adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:751-754
120. Lahmeyer HW, Poznanski EO, Bellur SN (1983), EEG sleep in depressed adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 140:1150-1153
121. Lavori PW, Klerman GL, Keller MB, Reich T, Rice J, Endicott J (1987), Age-period-cohort analysis of secular trends in onset of major depression: findings in siblings of patients with major affective disorder. J Psychiatr Res 21:23-35
122. Lee CM, Gotlib IH (1991), Adjustment of children of depressed mothers: a 10 month follow-up. J Abnorm Psychol 4:473-477
123. *Lewinsohn PM, Clarke GN, Seeley JR, Rohde P (1994), Major depression in community adolescents: age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:809-818
124. Lewinsohn PM, Duncan EM, Stanton AK, Hautziner M (1986), Age at onset for first unipolar depression. J Abnorm Psychol 95:378-383
125. Lewinsohn PM, Hops H, Roberts RE, Seeley JR, Andrews JA (1993a), Adolescent psychopathology: I. Prevalence and incidence of depression and other DSM-III-R disorders in high school students. J Abnorm Psychol 102:133-144
126. Lewinsohn PM, Klein DN, Seeley JR (1995a), Bipolar disorders in a community sample of older patients: prevalence, phenomenology, comorbidity, and course. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:454-463
127. Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR (1993b), Psychosocial characteristics of adolescents with a history of suicide attempt. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:60-68
128. Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR (1995b), Adolescent psychopathology: III. The clinical consequences of comorbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:510-519
129. Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR, Fischer SA (1993c), Age-cohort changes in the lifetime occurrence of depression and other mental disorders. J Abnorm Psychol 102:110-120
130. Lewinsohn PM, Rohde P, Seeley JR, Hops H (1991), Comorbidity of unipolar depression I: major depression with dysthymia. J Abnorm Psychol 100:205-213
131. Livingston R, Nugent H, Rader L, Smith GR (1985), Family histories of depressed and severely anxious children. Am J Psychiatry 142:1497-1499
132. Lucas CP (1991), Seasonal affective disorder in adolescence. Br J Psychiatry 159:863-865
133. Maes M, Meltzer (1995), The serotonin hypothesis of major depression. In: Psychopharmacology: The Fourth Generation of Progress, Bloom FE, Kupfer DJ, eds. New York: Raven Press, pp 933-944
134. Marton P, Churchard M, Kutcher S (1993a), Cognitive distortion in depressed adolescents. J Psychiatry Neurosci 18:103-107
135. Marton P, Connolly J, Kutcher S, Korenblum M (1993b), Cognitive social skills and social self-appraisal in depressed adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:739-744
136. Marton P, Golombek H, Stein B, Korenblum M (1987), Behavior disturbance and changes in personality dysfunction from early to middle adolescence. Adolesc Psychiatry 14:394-406
137. Marton P, Korenblum MP, Kutcher M, Stein S, Kennedy B, Pakes J (1989), Personality dysfunction in depressed adolescents. Can J Psychiatry 34:810-813
138. Marton P, Kutcher S (1995), The prevalence of cognitive distortion in depressed adolescents. J Psychiatry Neurosci 20:33-38
139. *McCauley E, Myers K (1992), Family interactions in mood disordered youth. Child Adolesc Psychiatr Clin North Am 1:111-127
140. McCauley E, Myers K, Mitchel J, Calderon R, Schloredt K, Treder R (1993), Depression in young people: initial presentation and clinical course. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:714-722
141. McGee R, Williams S (1988), A longitudinal study of depression in nine-year-old children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 27:342-348
142. Merikangas KR, Weissman MM, Prusoff BA, John K (1988), Assortative mating and affective disorders: psychopathology in offspring. Psychiatry 51:48-57
143. Mitchell J, McCauley E, Burke P, Calderon R, Schloredt K (1989), Psychopathology in parents of depressed children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:352-357
144. Mitchell J, McCauley E, Burle PM, Mass SJ (1988), Phenomenology of depression in children and adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 1:12-20
145. Mufson L, Aidala A, Warner V (1994), Social dysfunction and psychiatric disorder in mothers and their children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:1256-1264
146. Mufson L, Weissman MM, Warner V (1992), Depression and anxiety in parents and children: a direct interview study. J Anx Disord 6:1-13
147. Naylor MW, Shain BN, Shipley JE (1990), REM latency in psychotically depressed adolescents. Biol Psychiatry 28:161-164
148. Nolen-Hoeksema S, Girgus JS, Seligman MEP (1992), Predictors and consequences of childhood depressive symptoms: a 5-year longitudinal study. J Abnorm Psychol 101:405-422
149. Orvaschel H (1990), Early onset psychiatric disorder in high risk children and increased family morbidity. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 29:184-188
150. Orvaschel H, Walsh-Allis G, Ye W (1988), Psychopathology in children of parents with recurrent depression. J Abnorm Child Psychol 16:17-28
151. Pfeffer CR, Klerman CL, Hurt SW, Kakuma T, Peskin JR, Siefker CA (1993), Suicidal children grow up: rates and psychosocial risk factors for suicide attempts during follow-up. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:106-113
152. Plomin R (1994), The Emanuel Miller Memorial Lecture 1993. Genetic research and identification of environmental influences. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 35:817-834
153. Puig-Antich J, Dahl R, Ryan N et al. (1989a), Cortisol secretion in prepubertal children with major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:801-809
154. Puig-Antich J, Goetz D, Davies M et al. (1989b), A controlled family history study of prepubertal major depressive disorder. Arch Gen Psychiatry 46:406-418
155. Puig-Antich J, Goetz R, Davies M et al. (1984), Growth hormone secretion in prepubertal children with major depression. II. Sleep-related plasma concentrations during a depressive episode. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:463-466
156. Puig-Antich J, Goetz R, Hanlon C et al. (1982), Sleep architecture and REM sleep measures in prepubertal children with major depression: a controlled study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:932-939
157. Puig-Antich J, Goetz R, Hanlon C, Tabrizi MA, Davies M, Weitzman E (1983), Sleep architecture and REM sleep measures in prepubertal major depressives: studies during recovery from a major depressive episode in a drug-free state. Arch Gen Psychiatry 40:187-192
158. Puig-Antich J, Kaufman J, Ryan ND et al. (1993), The psychosocial functioning and family environment of depressed adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:244-251
159. Puig-Antich J, Lukens E, Davies M, Goetz D, Brennan-Quattrock J, Todak G (1985a), Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal major depressive disorders. I. Interpersonal relationships during the depressive episode. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42:500-507
160. Puig-Antich J, Lukens E, Davies M, Goetz D, Brennan-Quattrock J, Todak G (1985b), Psychosocial functioning in prepubertal depressive disorders. II. Interpersonal relationships after sustained recovery from affective episode. Arch Gen Psychiatry 42:511-517
161. Puig-Antich J, Rabinovich H (1986), Relationship between affective and anxiety disorders in childhood. In: Anxiety Disorders in Childhood, Gittelman R, ed. New York: Guilford
162. *Rao U, Ryan ND, Birmaher B et al. (1995), Unipolar depression in adolescents: clinical outcome in adulthood. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:566-578
163. Reinherz HZ, Giaconia RM, Pakis B, Silverman AB, Frost AK, Lefkowitz ES (1993), Psychosocial risks for major depression in late adolescence: a longitudinal community study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:1155-1163
164. Reinherz HZ, Stewart-Berghauer G, Pakiz B, Frost AK, Moeykens BA, Holmes WM (1989), The relarionship of early risk and current mediators to depressive symptomatology in adolescence. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 28:942-947
165. Roberts RE, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR (1995), Symptoms of DSM-III-R major depression in adolescence: evidence from an epidemiological study. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1608-1617
166. Rohde P, Lewinsohn PM, Seeley JR (1991), Comorbidity of unipolar depression: II. Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults. J Abnorm Psychol 100:214-222
167. Rohde P, Lewisohn PM, Seeley JR (1994), Are adolescents changed by an episode of major depression? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:1289-1298
168. Rutter M (1990), Commentary: some focus and process considerations regarding effects of parental depression on children. J Dev Psychol 26:60-67
169. Rutter M (1991), Age changes in depressive disorders: some developmental considctations. In: The Development of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation, Garber J, Dodge KA, eds. New York: Cambridge University Press
170. Ryan ND, Birmaher B, Perel JM et al. (1992a), Neuroendocrine response to L-5-hydroxytryptophan challenge in prepubertal major depression. Depressed vs normal children. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:843-851
171. Ryan ND, Dahl RE, Birmaher B et al. (1994), Stimulatory tests of grown hormone secretion in prepubertal major depression: depressed versus normal children. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 33:824-833
172. Ryan ND, Puig-Antich J, Ambrosini P et al. (1987), The clinical picture of major depression in children and adolescents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:854-861
173. Ryan ND, Williamson DE, Iyengar S et al. (1992b), A secular increase in child and adolescent onset affective disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:600-605
174. Sanford M, Szatmari P, Spinner M et al. (1995), Predicting the one-year course of adolescent major depression. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1618-1628
175. Shaffer D, Gould MS, Fisher P et al. (1996), Psychiatric diagnosis in child and adolescent suicide. Arch Gen Psychiatry 53:339-348
176. Stewart JW, McGrath PJ, Rabkin JG, Quitkin FM (1993), Atypical depression: a valid clinical entity? Psychiatr Clin North Am 16:479-495
177. Strober M (1984), Familial aspects of depressive disorders in early adolescence. In: Current Perspectives on Major Depression, Weller EB, Well RA, eds. Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press, pp 38-48
178. Strober M, Carlson G (1982), Bipolar illness in adolescents with major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:549-555
179. Strober M, Lampert C, Schmidt S, Morrel W (1993), The course of major depressive disorder in adolescents: I. Recovery and risk of manic switching in a follow-up of psychotic and nonpsychotic subtypes. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:34-42
180. Stubbe DE, Zahner G, Goldstein MJ, Leckman JF (1993), Diagnostic specificity of a brief measure of expressed emotion: a community study of children. J Child Psychol Psychiatry 34:139-154
181. Swedo SE, Pleeter JD, Richter DM et al. (1995), Rates of seasonal affective disorder in children and adolescents. Am J Psychiatry 152:1016-1019
182. Todd RD, Neuman R, Geller B, Fox LW, Kickok J (1993), Genetic studies of affective disorders: should we be starting with childhood onset probands? J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 32:1164-1171
183. Tsuang MT, Faraone SV, Fleming JA (1985), Familial transmission of major affective disorders: is there evidence supporting the distinction between unipolar and bipolar disorders? Br J Psychiatry 146:268-271
184. Turner JE Jr, Cole DA (1994), Developmental differences in cognitive diatheses for child depression. J Abnorm Child Psychol 22:15-32
185. Warner V, Mufson L, Weissman MM (1995), Offspring at high and low risk for depression and anxiety: mechanisms of psychiatric disorder. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:786-797
186. Warner V, Weissman M, Fendrich M, Wickramaratne P, Moreau D (1992), The course of major depression in the offspring of depressed parents. Arch Gen Psychiatry 49:795-801
187. Weissman MM, Fendrich M, Warner V, Wickramaratne P (1992), Incidence of psychiatric disorder in offspring at high and low risk for depression. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 31:640-648
188. Weissman MM, Gammon GD, John K, Merikangas KR, Prusoff BA, Sholomskas D (1987), Children of depressed parents: increased psychopathology and early onset of major depression. Arch Gen Psychiatry 44:847-853
189. Weissman MM, Kidd KK, Prusoff BA (1982), Variability in rates of affective disorders in relatives of depressed and normal probands. Arch Gen Psychiatry 39:1397-1403
190. Weissman MM, Leckman JF, Merikangas KR, Gammon RD, Prusoff BA (1984a), Depression and anxiety disorders in parents and children: results from the Yale family study. Arch Gen Psychiatry 41:845-852
191. Weissman MM, Warner V, Wickramaratne P, Prusoff BA (1988), Early-onset major depression in parents and their children. J Affect Disord 15:269-277
192. Weissman MM, Wickramaratne P, Merikangas KR et al. (1984b), Onset of
193. Weller RA, Weller EB, Fristad MA, Bowes JM (1991), Depression in recently bereaved prepubertal children. Am J Psychiatry 148:1536-1540
194. Wickramaratne PJ, Weissman MM, Leaf PJ, Holford TR (1989), Age, period, and cohort effects on the risk of major depression: results from five United States communities. J Clin Epidemiol 42:333-343
195. Williamson DE, Birmaher B, Anderson BP, Al-Shabbout M, Ryan ND (1995a), Stressful life events in depressed adolescents: the role of dependent events during the depressive episode. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:591-598
196. Williamson DE, Birmaher B, Dahl RE, Brook JL, Al-Shabbout M, Ryan ND (in press), Stressful life events influence nocturnal growth hormone secretion in depressed children. Biol Psychiatry
197. Williamson DE, Dahl RE, Birmaher B, Goetz RR, Ryan ND (1995b), Stressful life events and EEG sleep in depressed and normal control adolescents. Biol Psychiatry 37:859-865
198. Williamson DE, Ryan ND, Birmaher B, Dahl RE, Nelson B (1995c), A case-control family history study of depression in adolescents. J Am Acad Child Adolesc Psychiatry 34:1596-1607
199. Young W, Knowles JB, MacLean AW, Boag L, McConville BJ (1982), The sleep of childhood depressives: comparison with age-matched controls. Biol Psychiatry 17:1163-1169