Antimicrobial activity of the medicinal mushroom Ganoderma

Food Reviews International

Volumn 21, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 211-229

  Gao, Yihuai ^a   Tang, Wenbo ^b   Gao, H E ^b   Chan, Eli ^c   Lan, Jin ^b   Li, X ^d   Zhou, Shufeng ^c  

^a MASSEY UNIVERSITY   (New Zealand)

^b New Zealand Institute of Natural Medicines   (New Zealand)

^c NATIONAL UNIVERSITY OF SINGAPORE   (Singapore)

^d FUDAN UNIVERSITY   (China)

Author keywords

Bacterium; Ganoderma; Infection; Polysaccharide; Triterpenoid; Virus

Indexed keywords

BACTERIUM; GANODERMA; INFECTION; TRITERPENOID;

BACTERIA; DISEASES; DNA; LIVING SYSTEMS STUDIES; MEDICINE; PATIENT TREATMENT; POLYSACCHARIDES; TOXICITY; VIRUSES;

MICROBIOLOGY;

ANIMALIA; BACTERIA (MICROORGANISMS); BASIDIOMYCOTA; GANODERMA; GANODERMA LUCIDUM; HEPATITIS B VIRUS; HERPES; HUMAN HERPESVIRUS 4; HUMAN IMMUNODEFICIENCY VIRUS; NEGIBACTERIA; POSIBACTERIA;

EID: 17044367362     PISSN: 87559129     EISSN: 15256103     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1081/FRI-200051893     Document Type: Review

References (113)

1. Akbar, S. M. F., Yamamoto, K., Abe, M., Ninomiya, T., Tanimoto, K., Masumoto, T., Michitaka, K., Horiike, N., Onji, M., (1999). Potent synergistic effect of sho-saiko-to, a herbal medicine, during vaccine therapy in a murine model of hepatitis B virus carrier. Eur. J. Clin. Invest. 29: 786-792.
2. Alrabiah, F. A., Sacks, S. L. (1996). New antiherpesvirus agents. Their targets and therapeutic potential. Drugs 52: 17-32.
3. Ambinder, R. F. (2003). Epstein-Barr virus-associated lymphoproliferative disorders. Rev. Clin. Exp. Hematol. 7: 362-374.
4. Andersson, J. P. (1991). Clinical aspects on Epstein-Barr virus infection. Scand. J. Infect. Dis. Suppl. 80: 94-104.
5. Aydin, A., Ersoz, G., Tekesin, O., Akcicek, E., Tuncyurek, M., Batur, Y. (1997). Does garlic oil have a role in the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection? Turk. J. Gastroenterol. 8: 181-184.
6. Bannister, B. A., Begg, N. T., Gillespie, S. H. (2000). Infectious disease. Blackwell Science: Oxford.
7. Barre-Sinoussi, F., Chermann, J. C., Rey, P., Nugeyre, M. T., Chamaret, S., Gruest, J., Dauguet, C., Axler-Blin C., Vezinet-Brun, P., Rouzioux, C., Rozenbaum, W., Montagnier, L. (1983). Isolation of a T-lymphotropic retrovirus from a patient at risk for acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science 220: 868-971.
8. Battle, J., Ha, T. Z., Li, C. P., Dellabeffa, V., Rice, P., Kalbfleisch, J., Browder, W., Williams, D. (1998). Ligand binding to the (1-×3)-beta-D- glucan receptor stimulates NF-kappa B activation, but not apoptosis in U937 cells. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249: 499-504.
9. Bianco, C. M. A., Striano, B. (2000). Antibiotic activity in Basidiomycetes. XIII. Antibiotic activity of mycelia and cultural filtrates. Allionia (Turin) 37: 253-255.
10. Cellini, L., Di Campli, E., Masulli, M., Di Bartolomec, S., Allocati, N. (1996). Inhibition of Helicobacter pylori by garlic extract (Allium sativum). FEMS Immunol. Med. Microbiol. 13: 273-277.
11. Chairul, C. S. M., Hayashi, Y. (1994). Lanostanoid triterpenes from Ganoderma applanatum. Phytochemistry 35: 1305-1308.
12. Chang, S. T., and Mshigeni, K. E. (2000). Ganoderma lucidum - Paramount among medicinal mushrooms. Discov. Innovat. 12: 97-101.
13. Chelimsky, G., Blanchard, S. S., Czinn, S. J. (2004). Helicobacter pylori in children and adolescents. Adolesc. Med. Clin. 15: 53-66.
14. Chen, H. C., Chou, C. K., Kuo, Y. H., Yeh, S. F. (1996). Identification of a protein kinase C (PKC) activator, daphnoretin, that suppresses hepatitis B virus gene expression in human hepatoma cells. Biochem. Pharmacol. 52: 1025-1032.
15. Chen, J. H., Jiang, R. L. (1980). A pharmacological study of the Chinese drug lingzhi (Ganoderma). Acta. Pharmacol. Sin. 15: 234-244.
16. Coen, D. M. (1991). The implications of resistance to antiviral agents for herpes virus drug targets and drug therapy. Antiviral Res. 15: 287-300.
17. Coen, D. M., Schaffer, P. A. (2003). Antiherpesvirus drugs: a promising spectrum of new drugs and drug targets. Nat. Rev. Drug Discov. 2: 278-288.
18. Colacino, J. M., Staschke, K. A. (1998). The identification and development of antiviral agents for the treatment of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. Prog. Drug. Res. 50: 259-322.
19. Colebunders, R., Dreezen, C., Florence, E., Pelgrom, Y., Schrooten, W. (2003). The use of complementary and alternative medicine by persons with HIV infection in Europe. Int. J. Std AIDS 14: 672-674.
20. Coletto, M. A. B., Pizzinat, M., Rossi, M. (1994). Antibiotic activity in Basidiomycetes. VII. Antibiotic activity of mycelia and cultural filtrates. Allionia (Turin) 32: 79-83.
21. Delaney, B., Moayyedi, P. (2004). Eradicating H pylori. BMJ 328: 1388-1389.
22. Diamond, M. S., Garcia-Aguilar J. Bickford JK, Corbi AL and Springer TA (1993). The I domain is a major recognition site on the leukocyte integrin Mac-1 (CD11b/CD 18) for four distinct adhesion ligands. J. Cell. Biol. 120: 1031-1043.
23. el-Mekkawy, S., Meselhy, M. R., Nakamura, N., Tezuka, Y., Hattori, M., Kakiuchi, N., Shimotohno, K., Kawahata, T., Otake, T. (1998). Anti-HIV-1 and anti-HIV-1-protease substances from Ganoderma lucidum. Phytochemistry 49: 1651-1657.
24. Eo, S. K., Kim, Y. S., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (1999). Antiherpetic activities of various protein bound polysaccharides isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 68: 175-181.
25. Eo, S. K., Kim, Y. S., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (1999a). Antiviral activities of various water and methanol soluble substances isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 68: 129-136.
26. Eo, S. K., Kim, Y. S., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (1999b). Antiherpetic activities of various protein bound polysaccharides isolated from Ganoderma lucidum. J. Ethnopharmacol. 68: 175-181.
27. Eo, S. K., Kim, Y. S., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (2000). Possible mode of antiviral activity of acidic protein bound polysaccharide isolated from Ganoderma lucidum on herpes simplex viruses. J. Ethnopharmacol. 72: 475-481.
28. Ernst, E. (1999). Is garlic an effective treatment for Helicobacter pylori infection? Arch. Intern. Med. 159: 2484-2485.
29. Fujisawa, K., Watanabe, A., Kimata, K. (1973). Therapeutic approach to chronic active hepatitis with glycyrrhizin. Asian Med. J. 23: 745-756.
30. Gaby, A. R. (2001). Helicobacter pylori eradication: are there alternatives to antibiotics? Alternat. Med. Rev. 6: 355-366.
31. Gallo, R. C., Sarin, P. S., Gelmann, E. P., Robert-Guroff, M., Richardson, E., Kalyanaraman, V. S., Mann, D., Sidhu, G. D., Stahl, R. E., Zolla-Pazner, S., Leibowitch, J., Popovic, M. (1983). Isolation of human T-cell leukemia virus in acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS). Science 220: 865-867.
32. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F., Chen, G. L., Dai, X. H., Ye, J. X. (2002a). A Phase I/II study of a Ganoderma lucidum extract (Ganopoly) in patients with advanced cancer. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4: 207-214.
33. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F., Chen, G. L., Dai, X. H., Ye, J. X., Gao, H. (2002b). A Phase I/II study of a Ganoderma lucidum extract in patients with chronic hepatitis B. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4: 321-327.
34. Gao, Y. H., Zhou, S. F., Jiang, W. Q., Huang, M., X., H. D (2003). Effect of Ganopoly, a Ganoderma lucidum polysaccharide extract on the immunological function in advanced-stage cancer patients. Immunol. Invest. 32: 201-215.
35. Gilbert, C., Bestman-Smith, J., Boivin, G. (2002). Resistance of herpesviruses to antiviral drugs: clinical impacts and molecular mechanisms. Drug Resist. Updat. 5: 88-114.
36. Goto, W., Kusumoto, I. T., Kadota, S., Namba, T., Kurokawa, M., Shiraki, K. (1996). Suppression of hepatitis B virus surface antigen secretion by traditional plant medicines. Phytother. Res. 10: 504-507.
37. Graham, D. Y., Anderson, S-Y., Lang, T. (1994). Garlic or jalapeno peppers for the treatment of Helicobacter pylori infection. Am. J. Gastroenterol. 94: 1200-1202.
38. Harris, A., Misiewicz, J. J. (2001). ABC of the upper gastrointestinal tract. Management of Helicobacter pylori infection. Br. Med. J. 323: 1047-1050.
39. Harris, J. C., Cottrell, S. L., Plummer, S., Lloyd, D. (2001). Antimicrobial properties of Allium sativum (garlic). Appl. Microbiol. Biotechnol. 57: 282-286.
40. Hildesheim, A., West, S., DeVeyra, E., De Guzman, M. F., Jurado, A., Jones, C., Imai, J., Hinuma, Y. (1992). Herbal medicine use, Epstein-Barr virus, and risk of nasopharyngeal carcinoma. Cancer Res. 52: 3048-3051.
41. Hoofnagle, J. H., di Bisceglie, A. M. (1997). The treatment of chronic viral hepatitis. N. Engl. J. Med. 336: 347-356.
42. Jenson, H. B. (2004). Virologic diagnosis, viral monitoring, and treatment of Epstein-Barr virus infectious mononucleosis. Curr. Infect. Dis. Rep. 6: 200-207.
43. Jonkers, D., van den Broek, E., van Dooren, I., Thijs, C., Dorant, E., Hageman, G., Stobberingh, E. (1999). Antibacterial effect of garlic and omeprazole on Helicobacter pylori. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 43: 837-839.
44. Kandefer-Szerszen, M., Kawecki, Z., Guz, M. (1979). Fungal nucleic acids as interferon inducers. Acta Microbiol. Polon. 28: 277-291.
45. Kao, J. H., Chen, D. S. (2002). Global control of hepatitis B virus infection. Lancet Infect. Dis. 2: 395-403.
46. Katelaris, P. H. (2004). Helicobacter pylori: why are eradication results so variable? J. Gastroenterol. Hepatol. 19: 606-609.
47. Kim, D. H., Bae, E. A., Jang, I. S., Han, M. J. (1996). Anti-Helicobacter pylori activity of mushrooms. Arch. Pharm. Res. 19: 447-447.
48. Kim, H. W., Shim, M. J., Choi, E. C., Kim, B. K. (1997). Inhibition of cytopathic effect of human immunodeficiency virus-1 by water-soluble extract of Ganoderma lucidum. Arch. Pharm. Res. 20: 425-431.
49. Kim, Y. S., Eo, S. K., Oh, K. W., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (2000). Antiherpetic activities of acidic protein bound polysaccharide isolated from Ganoderma lucidum alone and in combinations with interferons. J. Ethnopharmacol. 72: 451-458.
50. Kino, K., Sone, T., Watanabe, J., Yamashita, A., Tsuboi, H., Miyajima, H., Tsunoo, H. (1991). Immunomodulator, LZ-8, prevents antibody production in mice. Int. J. Immunopharmacol. 13: 109-1115.
51. Kitamura, K., Honda, M., Yoshizaki, H., Yamamoto, S., Nakane, H., Fukushima, M., Ono, K., Tokunaga, T. (1998). Baicalin, an inhibitor of HIV-1 production in vitro. Antiviral Res. 37: 131-140.
52. Konopski, Z., Smedsrod, B., Seljelid, R., Eskeland, T. (1994). A novel immunomodulator soluble aminated β-1,3-D-glucan: Binding characteristics to mouse peritoneal macrophages. Biochim. Biophys. Acta - Mol. Cell. Res. 1221: 61-65.
53. Lee, S. S., Wei, Y. H., Chen, C. F., Wang, S. Y., Chen, K. Y. (1995). Antitumor effects of Ganoderma lucidum. J. Chin. Med. 6: 1-12.
54. Li, B. Q., Fu, T., Dongyan, Y., Mikovits, J. A., Ruscetti, F. W., Wang, J. M. (2000). Flavonoid baicalin inhibits HIV-1 infection at the level of viral entry. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 276: 534-538.
55. Li, B. Q., Fu, T., Yan, Y. D., Baylor, N. W., Ruscetti, F. W., Kung, H. F. (1993). Inhibition of HIV infection by baicalin-a flavonoid compound purified from Chinese herbal medicine. Cell. Mol. Biol. Res. 39: 119-124.
56. Li, Z. G., Xie, W. G., Zhang, M. (1999). Study on the inhibitory effects of extracts of tea polyphenols, glossy Ganoderma and beet tea on bacillus. Shipin Kexue - Chinese Journal of Food Science (Chinese) 20: 49-51.
57. Lin, O. S., Keeffe, E. B. (2001). Current treatment strategies for chronic hepatitis B and C. Annu. Rev. Med. 52: 29-49.
58. Liu, J., Lin, H., McIntosh, H. (2001a). Genus Phyllanthus for chronic hepatitis B virus infection: A systematic review. J. Viral Hepatitis 8: 358-366.
59. Liu, J. P., McIntosh, H., Lin, H. (2001b). Chinese medicinal herbs for chronic hepatitis B: A systematic review. Liver 21: 280-286.
60. Lovy, A., Knowles, B., Labbe, R., Nolan, L. (1999). Activity of edible mushrooms against the growth of human T4 leukemic cancer cells, HeLa cervical cancer cells, and Plasmodium falciparum. J. Herb Spice Med. Plant. 6: 49-57.
61. Martin, K. W., Ernst, E. (2003a). Antiviral agents from plants and herbs: a systematic review. Antivir. Ther. 8: 77-90.
62. Martin, K. W., Ernst, E. (2003b). Herbal medicines for treatment of bacterial infections: a review of controlled clinical trials. J. Antimicrob. Chemother. 51: 241-246.
63. Matsushita, S., Kimura, T. (2002). Advance in treatment strategy and immune reconstruction against HIV-1 infection. Microbiol. Immunol. 46: 231-239.
64. Matthee, G., Wright, A. D., Koenig, G. M. (1999). HIV reverse transcriptase inhibitors of natural origin. Planta Med. 65: 493-506.
65. McNulty, C. A. M., Wilson, M. P., Havinga, W., Johnston, B., O'Gara, E. A., Maslin, D. J. (2001). A pilot study to determine the effectiveness of garlic oil capsules in the treatment of dyspeptic patients with Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 6: 249-253.
66. Megraud, F. (2004). H. pylori antibiotic resistance: prevalence, importance, and advances in testing. Gut 53: 1374-1384.
67. Menendez-Arias, L. (2002). Targeting HIV: antiretroviral therapy and development of drug resistance. Trends Pharmacol. Sci. 23: 381-388.
68. Min, B. S., Nakamura, N., Miyashiro, H., Bae, K. W., Hattori, M. (1998). Triterpenes from the spores of Ganoderma lucidum and their inhibitory activity against HIV-1 protease. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 46: 1607-1612.
69. Mizushina, Y., Hanashima, L., Yamaguchi, T., Takemura, M., Sugawara, F., Saneyoshi, M., Matsukage, A., Yoshida, S., Sakaguchi, K. (1998a). A mushroom fruiting body-inducing substance inhibits activities of replicative DNA polymerases. Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 249: 17-22.
70. Mizushina, Y., Takahashi, N., Hanashima, L., Koshino, H., Esumi, Y., Uzawa, J., Sugawara, F., Sakaguchi, K. (1999). Lucidenic acid O and lactone, new terpene inhibitors of eukaryotic DNA polymerases from a basidiomycete, Ganoderma lucidum. Bioorg. Med. Chem. 7: 2047-2052.
71. Mizushina, Y., Watanabe, I., Togashi, H., Hanashima, L., Takemura, M., Ohta, K., Sugawara, F., Koshino, H., Esumi, Y., Uzawa, J., Matsukage, A., Yoshida, S., Sakaguchi, K. (1998b). An ergosterol peroxide, a natural product that selectively enhances the inhibitory effect of linoleic acid on DNA polymerase beta. Biol. Pharm. Bull. 21: 444-448.
72. Mothana, R., Jansen, R., Julich, W. D., Lindequist, U. (2000). Ganomycins A and B, new antimicrobial farnesyl hydroquinones from the basidiomycete Ganoderma pfeifferi. J. Nat. Prod. 63:416-418.
73. Mueller, A., Raptis, J., Rice, P. J., Kalbfleisch, J. H., Stout, R. D., Ensley, H. E., Browder, W., Williams, D. L. (2000). The influence of glucan polymer structure and solution conformation on binding to (1 × 3)-beta-D-glucan receptors in a human monocyte-like cell line. Glycobiology 10: 339-346.
74. Muller, A., Rice, P. J., Ensley, H., Coogan, P. S., Kalbfleisch, J. H., Kelley, J. L., Love, E. J., Portera, C. A., Ha, T. Z., Browder, I. W., Williams, D. L. (1996). Receptor binding and internal-ization of a water-soluble (1×3)-beta-D-glucan biologic response modifier in two monocyte macrophage cell lines. J. Immunol. 156: 3418-3425.
75. Nakayama, Y., Graham, D. Y. (2004). Helicobacter pylori infection: diagnosis and treatment. Expert Rev. Anti. Infect. Ther. 2: 599-610.
76. Nir, Y., Potasman, I., Stermer, E., Tabak, M., Neeman, I. (2000). Controlled trial of the effect of cinnamon extract on Helicobacter pylori. Helicobacter 5: 94-97.
77. O'Gara, E. A., Hill, D. J., Maslin, D. J. (2000). Activities of garlic oil, garlic powder, and their diallyl constituents against Helicobacter pylori. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 66: 2269-2273.
78. Oh, K. W., Lee, C. K., Kim, Y. S., Eo, S. K., Han, S. S. (2000). Antiherpetic activities of acidic protein bound polysacchride isolated from Ganoderma lucidum alone and in combinations with acyclovir and vidarabine. J. Ethnopharmacol. 72: 221-227.
79. Perrillo, R. P., Mason , A. L. (1994). Therapy for hepatitis B virus infection. Gastroenterol. Clin. North Am. 23:581-601.
80. Power, R., Gore-Felton, C., Vosvick, M., Israelski, D. M., Spiegel, D. (2002). HIV: effectiveness of complementary and alternative medicine. Primary Care 29: 361-378.
81. Rechermann, B., Ferrari, C., Pasquinelli, C., Chisari, F. V. (1996). The hepatitis B virus persists for decades after patients' recovery from acute viral hepatitis despite active maintenance of a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response. Nat. Med. 2: 1104-1108.
82. Rehermann, B., Lau, D., Hoofnagle, J. H., Chisari, F. V. (1996). Cytotoxic T lymphocyte responsiveness after resolution of chronic hepatitis B virus infection. J Clin Invest 97: 1655-1665.
83. Reichling, J., Weseler, A., Saller, R. (2001). A current review of the antimicrobial activity of Hypericum perforatum L. Pharmacopsychiatry 34: S116-S118.
84. Ross, Z. M., O'Gara, E. A., Hill, D. J., Sleightholme, H. V., Maslin, D. J. (2001). Antimicrobial properties of garlic oil against human enteric bacteria: evaluation of methodologies and comparisons with garlic oil sulfides and garlic powder. Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 67: 475-480.
85. Santantonio, T., Mazzola, M., Iacovazzi, T., Miglietta, A., Guastadisegni, A. Pastore, G. (2000). Long-term follow-up of patients with anti-HBe/HBV DNA-positive chronic hepatitis B treated for 12 months with lamivudine. J. Hepatol. 32: 300-306.
86. Sato, H., Goto, W., Yamamura, J., Kurokawa, M., Kageyama, S., Takahara, T., Watanabe, A., Shiraki, K. (1996). Therapeutic basis of glycyrrhizin on chronic hepatitis B. Antivir. Res. 30:171-177.
87. Smania, A., Delle Monache, F., Smania, E. F., Cuneo, R. S. (1999). Antibacterial activity of steroidal compounds isolated from Ganoderma applanatum (Pers.) Pat. (Aphyllophoromycetideae) fruit body. Int. J. Med. Mushr. 1: 325-330.
88. Srivastava, A., Shukla, Y. N., Kumar, S. (2000). Recent development in plant derived antimicrobial constituents: A review. J. Med. Aromat. Plant. Sci. 22: 349-405.
89. Stanley, J. (1997). Malaria. Emerg. Med. Clin. North Am. 15: 113-155.
90. Stierlin, H., Faigle, J. W., Sallman, A., Kung, W., Richter, W. J., Kriemler, H. P., Alt, K. O., Winkler, T. (1979). Biotransformation of diclofenac sodium (Voltaren) in animals and man. I. Isolation and identification of principal metabolites. Xenobiotica 9: 601-610.
91. Sullivan, T., Ashbury, F. D., Fallone, C. A., Naja, F., Schabas, R., Hebert, P. C., Hunt, R., Jones, N. (2004). Helicobacter pylori and the prevention of gastric cancer. Can. J. Gastroenterol. 18: 295-302.
92. Susuki, H., Ohta, Y., Takino, T., Fujisawa, K., Hirayama, C. (1983). Effects of glycyrrhizin on biological tests in patients with chronic hepatitis. A double-blind trial. Asian Med. J. 26: 423-438.
93. Tabak, M., Armon, R., Neeman, I. (1996). Cinnamon extracts' inhibitory effect on Helicobacter pylori. J. Ethnopharmacol. 67: 269-277.
94. Takahara, T., Watanabe, A., Shiraki, K. (1994). Effects of glycyrrhizin on hepatitis B surface antigen - A biochemical and morphological study. J. Hepatol. 21: 601-609.
95. Thornton, B. P., Vetvicka, V., Pitman, M., Goldman, R. C., Ross, G. D. (1996). Analysis of the sugar specificity and molecular location of the beta-glucan-binding lectin site of complement receptor type 3 (CD11b/CD18). J. Immunol. 156: 1235-1246.
96. Vermani, K., Garg, S. (2002). Herbal medicines for sexually transmitted diseases and AIDS. J. Ethnopharmacol. 80: 49-66.
97. Vickers, A. (2000). Recent advances: Complementary medicine. Er. Med. J. 321: 683-686.
98. Villarreal, E. C. (2003). Current and potential therapies for the treatment of herpes-virus infections. Prog. Drug. Res. 60: 263-307.
99. Vimala, S., Norhanom, A. W., Yadav, M. (1999). Anti-tumour promoter activity in Malaysian Ginger rhizobia used in traditional medicine. Br. J. Cancer 80: 110-116.
100. Vlietnick, A. J., de Bruyne, T., Apers, S., Pieters, L. A. (1998). Plant-derived leading compounds for chemotherapy of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection. Planta Med. 64: 97-109.
101. Wathen, M. W. (2002). Non-nucleoside inhibitors of herpesviruses. Rev. Med. Virol. 12: 167-178.
102. Webster, G., Bertoletti, A. (2001). Quantity and quality of virus-specific CD8 cell response: Relevance to the design of a therapeutic vaccine for chronic HBV infection. Mol. Immunol. 38:467-473.
103. White, D. O., Fenner, F. J. (1994). Viral replication. In: Medical Virology. White. D. O., Fenner, F. J., eds., Academic Press: San Diego.
104. WHO (1998). Hepatitis B, in Fact Sheet WHO.
105. Wills, R. B. H., Bone, K., Morgan, M. (2000). Herbal products: Active constituents, modes of action and quality control. Nutr. Res. Rev. 13: 47-77.
106. Wollner, T. (2004). Eradicate H. pylori with effective treatment regimens. Nurse Pract. 29: 40-44.
107. Wu, J. A., Attele, A. S., Zhang, L., Yuan, C. S. (2001). Anti-HIV activity of medicinal herbs: usage and potential development. Am. J. Chin. Med. 29: 69-81.
108. Yeung-Yue, K. A., Brentjens, M. H., Lee, P. C., Tyring, S. K. (2002). Herpes simplex viruses 1 and 2. Dematol. Clin. 20: 249-266.
109. Yoon, S. Y., Eo, S. K., Kim, Y. S., Lee, C. K., Han, S. S. (1994). Antimicrobial activity of Ganoderma lucidum extract alone and in combination with some antibiotics. Arch. Pharm. Res. 17: 438-442.
110. Zhang, J. S., Tang, Q. J., Zimmerman-Kordmann, M., Reutter, W., Fan, H. (2002). Activation of B lymphocytes by GLIS, a bioactive proteoglycan from Ganoderma lucidum. Life Sci. 71: 623-638.
111. Zhang, X., Tang, X., Chen, H. (1991). Inhibition of HIV replication by baicalin and S. baicalensis extracts in H9 cell culture. Chin. Med. Sci. J. 6: 230-232.
112. Zhang, Z. (1989). Inhibitory effect of medicinal fungi on hepatitis B virus in vitro and in vivo. Bull. Beijing Med. Univ. 21: 455-459.
113. Zhou, S. F., Gao, Y. H. (2002). The immunomodulating effects of Ganoderma lucidum (Curt.: Fr) P. Karst (Ling Zhi, Reishi mushroom) (Aphyllophoromycetideae). Int. J. Med. Mushr. 4: 1-11.