Targeted tuberculin skin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in children and adolescents

Pediatrics

Volumn 114, Issue 4, 2004, Pages 1175-1201

  Saiman, Lisa ^a   Colson, Paul ^b  

^a College of Physicians and Surgeons ^*  (United States)

^b HARLEM HOSPITAL CENTER   (United States)

Author keywords

Adolescents; Children; Latent tuberculosis infection; Pediatrics; Tuberculin skin test; Tuberculosis

Indexed keywords

AMINOSALICYLIC ACID; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIINFECTIVE AGENT; BCG VACCINE; BUDESONIDE; CHICKENPOX VACCINE; CORTICOSTEROID; CYCLOSERINE; ETHAMBUTOL; ETHIONAMIDE; INFLIXIMAB; ISONIAZID; MEASLES MUMPS RUBELLA VACCINE; OFLOXACIN; POLIOMYELITIS VACCINE; PYRAZINAMIDE; QUINOLONE DERIVATIVE; RIFAMPICIN; RUBELLA VACCINE; STEROID; TUMOR NECROSIS FACTOR ALPHA; TYPHOID VACCINE;

ABDOMINAL DISCOMFORT; ABNORMALLY HIGH SUBSTRATE CONCENTRATION IN BLOOD; ANOREXIA; ATAXIA; BACTERIUM CULTURE; BRAIN DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPUTER ASSISTED TOMOGRAPHY; DEMOGRAPHY; DIAGNOSTIC ACCURACY; DIAGNOSTIC PROCEDURE; DISEASE EXACERBATION; DRUG FATALITY; ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSPOT ASSAY; FATIGUE; FEVER; GASTROINTESTINAL DISEASE; HEALTH CARE PERSONNEL; HEPATITIS; HIGH RISK POPULATION; HUMAN; HYPERSENSITIVITY REACTION; JAUNDICE; LIVER FAILURE; LIVER TOXICITY; MALAISE; MENTAL DISEASE; NAUSEA; OPTIC NERVE DISEASE; PERIPHERAL NEUROPATHY; PHYSICAL EXAMINATION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; QUESTIONNAIRE; RASH; REVIEW; RISK FACTOR; SCREENING; SEIZURE; THORAX RADIOGRAPHY; TUBERCULIN TEST; TUBERCULOSIS; UNITED STATES;

EID: 16444380734     PISSN: 00314005     EISSN: 00314005     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1542/peds.2004-0809     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Essential components of a tuberculosis prevention and control program. Recommendations of the Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1995;44(RR-11):1-16
2. American Thoracic Society. Targeted tuberculin testing and treatment of latent tuberculosis infection. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(4 pt 2):S221-S247
3. American Academy of Pediatrics. Tuberculosis. In: Pickering LK, ed. Red Book: 2003 Report of the Committee on Infectious Diseases. 25th ed. Elk Grove Village, IL: American Academy of Pediatrics; 2003:642-660
4. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Prevention and treatment of tuberculosis among patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus: principles of therapy and revised recommendations. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1998;47(RR-20):1-58
5. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: fatal and severe liver injuries associated with rifampin and pyrazinamide for latent tuberculosis infection, and revisions in American Thoracic Society/CDC Recommendations - United States, 2001. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2001;50:733-735
6. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Update: adverse event data and revised American Thoracic Society/CDC recommendations against the use of rifampin and pyrazinamide for treatment of latent tuberculosis infection - United States, 2003. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2003;52:735-739
7. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Reported Tuberculosis in the United States, 2002. Atlanta, GA: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; 2003
8. Jacobs RF, Starke JR. Mycobacterium tuberculosis. In: Long SS, Pickering LK, Prober CG, eds. Principles and Practice of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 2nd ed. Philadelphia, PA: Churchill Livingstone; 2003:791-810
9. Munoz FM, Starke JR. Tuberculosis in children. In: Reichman LB, Harshfield ES, eds. Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2000:553-598
10. Starke JR, Smith MHD. Text Book of Pediatric Infectious Diseases. 4th ed. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company; 1998
11. Ampofo K, Saiman L. Tuberculosis. In: Burg FD, Ingelfinger JR, Polin RA, Gershon AA, eds. Current Pediatric Therapy. Philadelphia, PA: W.B. Saunders Company; 2002:106-110
12. Lobato MN, Mohle-Boetani JC, Royce SE. Missed opportunities for preventing tuberculosis among children younger than five years of age. Pediatrics. 2000;106(6). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/ content/full/106/6/e75
13. Advisory Council for the Elimination of Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis elimination revisited: obstacles, opportunities, and a renewed commitment. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1999;48(RR-9):1-13
14. Comstock GW, Livesay VT, Woolpert SF. The prognosis of a positive tuberculin reaction in childhood and adolescence. Am J Epidemiol. 1974;99:131-138
15. Marks SM, Taylor Z, Qualls NL, Shrestha-Kuwahara RJ, Wilce MA, Nguyen CH. Outcomes of contact investigations of infectious tuberculosis patients. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;162:2033-2038
16. Lobato MN, Royce SE, Mohle-Boetani JC. Yield of source-case and contact investigations in identifying previously undiagnosed childhood tuberculosis. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2003;7:S391-S396
17. Lobato MN, Hopewell PC. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection after travel to or contact with visitors from countries with a high prevalence of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1998;158:1871-1875
18. Saiman L, San Gabriel P, Schulte J, Vargas MP, Kenyon T, Onorato I. Risk factors for latent tuberculosis infection among children in New York City. Pediatrics. 2001;107:999-1003
19. Besser RE, Pakiz B, Schulte JM, et al. Risk factors for positive Mantoux tuberculin skin tests in children in San Diego, California: evidence for boosting and possible foodborne transmission. Pediatrics. 2001;108:305-310
20. Froehlich H, Ackerson LM, Morozumi PA. Targeted testing of children for tuberculosis: validation of a risk assessment questionnaire. Pediatrics. 2001;107(4). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/full/107/4/e54
21. Ozuah PO, Ozuah TP, Stein RE, Burton W, Mulvihill M. Evaluation of a risk assessment questionnaire used to target tuberculin skin testing in children. JAMA. 2001;285:451-453
22. New York City Department of Health. Information Summary. New York, NY: New York City Department of Health; 1996:32
23. Hostetter MK, Iverson S, Thomas W, McKenzie D, Dole K, Johnson DE. Medical evaluation of internationally adopted children. N Engl J Med. 1991;325:479-485
24. Saiman L, Aronson J, Zhou J, et al. Prevalence of infectious diseases among internationally adopted children. Pediatrics. 2001;108:608-612
25. Lange WR, Warnock-Eckhart E, Bean ME. Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection in foreign born adoptees. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1989;8:625-629
26. Lange WR, Warnock-Eckhart E. Selected infectious disease risks in international adoptees. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1987;6:447-450
27. Albers LH, Johnson DE, Hostetter MK, Iverson S, Miller LC. Health of children adopted from the former Soviet Union and Eastern Europe. Comparison with preadoptive medical records. JAMA. 1997;278:922-924
28. Miller LC, Hendrie NW. Health of children adopted from China. Pediatrics. 2000;105(6). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/content/ full/105/6/e76
29. Nicholson AJ, Francis BM, Mulholland EK, Moulden AL, Oberklaid F. Health screening of international adoptees. Evaluation of a hospital based clinic. Med J Aust. 1992;156:377-379
30. Johnson DE, Miller LC, Iverson S, et al. The health of children adopted from Romania. JAMA. 1992;268:3446-3451
31. Curtis AB, Ridzon R, Vogel R, et al. Extensive transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis from a child. N Engl J Med. 1999;341:1491-1495
32. Driver CR, Valway SE, Cantwell MF, Onorato IM. Tuberculin skin test screening in schoolchildren in the United States. Pediatrics. 1996;98:97-102
33. Starke JR. Universal screening for tuberculosis infection. School's out! JAMA. 1995;274:652-653
34. Mohle-Boetani JC, Miller B, Halpern M, et al. School-based screening for tuberculous infection. A cost-benefit analysis. JAMA. 1995;274:613-619
35. Scholten JN, Fujiwara PI, Frieden TR. Prevalence and factors associated with tuberculosis infection among new school entrants, New York City, 1991-1993. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999;3:31-41
36. Los Angeles County TB Control Program. School mandate 2002-3. Los Angeles, CA; 2003
37. Gounder CR, Driver CR, Scholten JN, Shen H, Munsiff SS. Tuberculin testing and risk of tuberculosis infection among New York City school-children. Pediatrics. 2003;111(4). Available at: www.pediatrics.org/cgi/ content/full/111/4/e309
38. California Code of Regulations. Title 22, Division 2, Subdivision 6, Chapter 9
39. Pong AL, Anders BJ, Moser KS, Starkey M, Gassmann A, Besser RE. Tuberculosis screening at 2 San Diego high schools with high-risk populations. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1998;152:646-650
40. Hsu K, Christiansen D, O'Connor D, Bernardo J, Hacker K. Self-assessment of tuberculosis infection risk by urban adolescents. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 2003;157:1227-1231
41. Barry MA, Shirley L, Grady MT, et al. Tuberculosis infection in urban adolescents: results of a school-based testing program. Am J Public Health. 1990;80:439-441
42. Sullam PM, Slutkin G, Hopewell PC. The benefits of evaluating close associates of child tuberculin reactors from a high prevalence group. Am J Public Health. 1986;76:1109-1111
43. Soren K, Saiman L, Irigoyen M, Gomez-Duarte C, Levison MJ, McMahon DJ. Evaluation of household contacts of children with positive tuberculin skin tests. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:949-955
44. Driver CR, Cordova IM, Munsiff SS. Targeting tuberculosis testing: the yield of source case investigations for young children with reactive tuberculin skin tests. Public Health Rep. 2002;117:366-372
45. Moonan PK, Marruffo M, Bayona G, et al. Tuberculosis: what is the yield of associate investigations in non-BCG immunized children with latent TB infection? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2004;In press
46. Keane J, Gershon S, Wise RP, et al. Tuberculosis associated with infliximab, a tumor necrosis factor alpha-neutralizing agent. N Engl J Med. 2001;345:1098-1104
47. Gardam MA, Keystone EC, Menzies R, et al. Anti-tumour necrosis factor agents and tuberculosis risk: mechanisms of action and clinical management [review]. Lancet Infect Dis. 2003;3:148-55
48. Bahceciler NN, Nuhoglu Y, Nursoy MA, Kodalli N, Barlan IB, Basaran MM. Inhaled corticosteroid therapy is safe in tuberculin-positive asthmatic children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2000;19:215-218
49. American Thoracic Society. The tuberculin skin test. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1981;124:356-363
50. Siebert FB, Glenn JT. Tuberculin purified protein derivative preparation and analyses of a large quantity for standard. Am Rev Tuberc Pulmon Dis. 1941;44:9-25
51. Huebner RE, Schein MF, Bass JB Jr. The tuberculin skin test. Clin Infect Dis. 1993;17:968-975
52. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Diagnostic standards and classification of tuberculosis in adults and children. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2000;161(4 pt 1):1376-1395
53. Menzies RI. Tuberculin skin testing. In: Reichman LB, Harshfield ES, eds. Tuberculosis: A Comprehensive International Approach. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2000:279-322
54. Cauthen GM, Snider DE Jr, Onorato IM. Boosting of tuberculin sensitivity among Southeast Asian refugees. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1994;149:1597-1600
55. Duboczy RO, Brown BT. Multiple readings and determination of maximal intensity of tuberculin reaction. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1961;82:60-67
56. Starke JR, Jacobs RF, Jereb J. Resurgence of tuberculosis in children. J Pediatr. 1992;120:839-855
57. Steiner P, Rao M, Victoria MS, Jabbar H, Steiner M. Persistently negative tuberculin reactions: their presence among children with culture positive for Mycobacterium tuberculosis (tuberculin-negative tuberculosis). Am J Dis Child. 1980;134:747-750
58. Khan EA, Starke JR. Diagnosis of tuberculosis in children: increased need for better methods. Emerg Infect Dis. 1995;1:115-123
59. Starr S, Berkovich S. Effects of measles, gamma-globulin-modified measles and vaccine measles on the tuberculin test. N Engl J Med. 1964;270:386-391
60. Belsey MA. Tuberculosis and varicella infections in children. Am J Dis Child. 1967;113:444-448
61. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. General recommendations on immunization. Recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP). MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43(RR-1):1-38
62. Berkovich S, Starr S. Effects of live type 1 poliovirus vaccine and other viruses on the tuberculin test. N Engl J Med. 1966;274:67-72
63. Kupers TA, Petrich JM, Holloway AW, St Geme JW Jr. Depression of tuberculin delayed hypersensitivity by live attenuated mumps virus. J Pediatr. 1970;76:716-721
64. Berkovich S, Fikrig S, Brunell PA, Portugalaza C, Steiner M. Effect of live attenuated mumps vaccine virus on the expression of tuberculin sensitivity. J Pediatr. 1972;80:84-87
65. Berkovich S, Steiner P, Steiner M. Live rubella virus vaccine in tuberculous children. Am J Dis Child. 1969;118:252-257
66. Smithwick EM, Steiner M, Quick JD. Vaccinia virus and tuberculin reactivity. Pediatrics. 1972;50:660-661
67. Brickman HF, Beaudry PH, Marks MI. The timing of tuberculin tests in relation to immunization with live viral vaccines. Pediatrics. 1975;55:392-396
68. Bovornkitti S, Kangsadal P, Sathirapat P, Oonsombatti P. Reversion and reconversion rate of tuberculin skin reactions in correlation with the use of prednisone. Dis Chest. 1960;38:51-55
69. MacGregor RR, Sheagren JN, Lipsett MB, Wolff SM. Alternate-day prednisone therapy. Evaluation of delayed hypersensitivity responses, control of disease and steroid side effects. N Engl J Med. 1969;280:1427-1431
70. Schatz M, Patterson R, Kloner R, Falk J. The prevalence of tuberculosis and positive tuberculin skin tests in a steroid-treated asthmatic population. Ann Intern Med. 1976;84:261-265
71. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Anergy skin testing and tuberculosis [corrected] preventive therapy for HIV-infected persons: revised recommendations [published correction appears in MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 1997;46:880]. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1997;46(RR-15):1-10
72. Chin DP, Osmond D, Page-Shafer K, et al. Reliability of anergy skin testing in persons with HIV infection. The Pulmonary Complications of HIV Infection Study Group. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1996;153:1982-1984
73. Gordin FM, Matts JP, Miller C, et al. A controlled trial of isoniazid in persons with anergy and human immunodeficiency virus infection who are at high risk for tuberculosis. Terry Beirn Community Programs for Clinical Research on AIDS. N Engl J Med. 1997;337:315-320
74. World Health Organization. WHO Vaccine-Preventable Diseases: Monitoring System: 2002 Global Summary. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2002
75. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control: WHO Report 2003. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2003
76. Almeida LM, Barbieri MA, Da Paixao AC, Cuevas LE. Use of purified protein derivative to assess the risk of infection in children in close contact with adults with tuberculosis in a population with high Calmette-Guerin bacillus coverage. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2001;20:1061-1065
77. Mudido PM, Guwatudde D, Nakakeeto MK, et al. The effect of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination at birth on tuberculin skin test reactivity in Ugandan children. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999;3:891-895
78. Lockman S, Tappero JW, Kenyon TA, Rumisha D, Huebner RE, Binkin NJ. Tuberculin reactivity in a pediatric population with high BCG vaccination coverage. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999;3:23-30
79. Fine PE, Bruce J, Ponnighaus JM, Nkhosa P, Harawa A, Vynnycky E. Tuberculin sensitivity: conversions and reversions in a rural African population. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999;3:962-975
80. Tanzania Tuberculin Survey Collaboration. Tuberculosis control in the era of the HIV epidemic: risk of tuberculosis infection in Tanzania, 1983-1998. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 2001;5:103-112
81. Karalliedde S, Katugaha LP, Uragoda CG. Tuberculin response of Sri Lankan children after BCG vaccination at birth. Tubercle. 1987;68:33-38
82. Marcus JH, Khassis Y. The tuberculin sensitivity in BCG vaccinated infants and children in Israel. Acta Tuberc Pneumol Scand. 1965;46:113-122
83. Lifschitz M. The value of the tuberculin skin test as a screening test for tuberculosis among BCG-vaccinated children. Pediatrics. 1965;36:624-627
84. Friedland IR. The booster effect with repeat tuberculin testing in children and its relationship to BCG vaccination. S Afr Med J. 1990;77:387-389
85. Al-Kassimi FA, Abdullah AK, al-Orainey IO, et al. The significance of positive Mantoux reactions in BCG-vaccinated children. Tubercle. 1991;72:101-104
86. Sepulveda RL, Burr C, Ferrer X, Sorensen RU. Booster effect of tuberculin testing in healthy 6-year-old school children vaccinated with bacillus Calmette-Guerin at birth in Santiago, Chile. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1988;7:578-581
87. Menzies R, Vissandjee B. Effect of bacille Calmette-Guerin vaccination on tuberculin reactivity. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:621-625
88. Ildirim I, Hacimustafaoglu M, Ediz B. Correlation of tuberculin induration with the number of bacillus Calmette-Guerin vaccines. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995;14:1060-1063
89. Chee CB, Soh CH, Boudville IC, Chor SS, Wang YT. Interpretation of the tuberculin skin test in Mycobacterium bovis BCG-vaccinated Singaporean schoolchildren. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;164:958-961
90. Horwitz O, Bunch-Christensen K. Correlation between tuberculin sensitivity after 2 months and 5 years among BCG vaccinated subjects. Bull World Health Organ. 1972;47:49-58
91. Comstock GW, Edwards LB, Nabangxang H. Tuberculin sensitivity eight to fifteen years after BCG Vaccination. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1971;103:572-575
92. Menzies D. Interpretation of repeated tuberculin tests. Boosting, conversion, and reversion. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:15-21
93. Lalvani A, Pathan AA, Durkan H, et al. Enhanced contact tracing and spatial tracking of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. Lancet. 2001;357:2017-2021
94. Lalvani A, Pathan AA, McShane H, et al. Rapid detection of Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection by enumeration of antigen-specific T cells. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2001;163:824-828
95. Iseman MD. A Clinician's Guide to Tuberculosis. 1st ed. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins Publishers; 2000
96. Daniel TM, Boom HW, Ellner JJ. Immunology of Tuberculosis. 2nd ed. New York, NY: Marcel Dekker; 2000
97. Ozuah PO, Burton W, Lerro KA, Rosenstock J, Mulvihill M. Assessing the validity of tuberculin skin test readings by trained professionals and patients. Chest. 1999;116:104-106
98. Howard TP, Solomon DA. Reading the tuberculin skin test. Who, when, and how? Arch Intern Med. 1988;148:2457-2459
99. Colp C, Goldfarb A, Wei I, Graney J. Patient's self-interpretation of tuberculin skin tests. Chest. 1996;110:1275-1277
100. Cheng TL, Ottolini MC, Baumhaft K, Brasseux C, Wolf MD, Scheidt PC. Strategies to increase adherence with tuberculosis test reading in a high-risk population. Pediatrics. 1997;100:210-213
101. Carter ER, Lee CM. Interpretation of the tuberculin skin test reaction by pediatric providers. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 2002;21:200-203
102. Kendig EL Jr, Kirkpatrick BV, Carter WH, Hill FA, Caldwell K, Entwistle M. Underreading of the tuberculin skin test reaction. Chest. 1998;113:1175-1177
103. Mazurek GH, Villarino ME, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for using the QuantiFERON-TB test for diagnosing latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. MMWR Recomm Rep. 2003;52(RR-2):15-18
104. Mazurek GH, LoBue PA, Daley CL, et al. Comparison of a whole-blood interferon gamma assay with tuberculin skin testing for detecting latent Mycobacterium tuberculosis infection. JAMA. 2001;286:1740-1747
105. Lobato MN, Cummings K, Will D, Royce S. Tuberculosis in children and adolescents: California, 1985 to 1995. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1998;17:407-411
106. Smuts NA, Beyers N, Gie RP, et al. Value of the lateral chest radiograph in tuberculosis in children. Pediatr Radiol. 1994;24:478-480
107. Delacourt C, Mani TM, Bonnerot V, et al. Computed tomography with normal chest radiograph in tuberculous infection. Arch Dis Child. 1993;69:430-432
108. Neu N, Saiman L, San Gabriel P, et al. Diagnosis of pediatric tuberculosis in the modern era. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1999;18:122-126
109. American Thoracic Society/Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/ Infectious Diseases Society of America. Treatment of tuberculosis. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 2003;167:603-662
110. Selwyn PA, Hartel D, Lewis VA, et al. A prospective study of the risk of tuberculosis among intravenous drug users with human immunodeficiency virus infection. N Engl J Med. 1989;320:545-550
111. Coovadia HM, Jeena P, Wilkinson D. Childhood human immunodeficiency virus and tuberculosis co-infections: reconciling conflicting data. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1998;2:844-851
112. Comstock G, LM. H, Pio A. Isoniazid prophylaxis in Alaskan boarding schools. A comparison of two doses. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1969;100:773-779
113. Ferebee SH. Controlled chemoprophylaxis trials in tuberculosis. A general review. Adv Tuberc Res. 1970;26:28-106
114. Comstock GW. How much isoniazid is needed for prevention of tuberculosis among immunocompetent adults? Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1999;3:847-850
115. Comstock GW, Ferebee SH. How much isoniazid is needed for prophylaxis? Am Rev Respir Dis. 1970;101:780-782
116. Comstock GW, Baum C, Snider DE Jr. Isoniazid prophylaxis among Alaskan Eskimos: a final report of the Bethel isoniazid studies. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1979;119:827-830
117. International Union Against Tuberculosis Committee on Prophylaxis. Efficacy of various durations of isoniazid preventive therapy for tuberculosis: five years of follow-up in the IUAT trial. Bull World Health Organ. 1982;60:555-564
118. Villarino ME, Ridzon R, Weismuller PC, et al. Rifampin preventive therapy for tuberculosis infection: experience with 157 adolescents. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1997;155:1735-1738
119. Ormerod LP. Rifampicin and isoniazid prophylactic chemotherapy for tuberculosis. Arch Dis Child. 1998;78:169-171
120. Passannante MR, Gallagher CT, Reichman LB. Preventive therapy for contacts of multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. A Delphi survey. Chest. 1994;106:431-434
121. Pablos-Mendez A, Raviglione MC, Laszlo A, et al. Global surveillance for antituberculosis-drug resistance, 1994-1997. World Health Organization- International Union against Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Working Group on Anti-Tuberculosis Drug Resistance Surveillance. N Engl J Med. 1998;338:1641-1649
122. Schaaf HS, Gie RP, Kennedy M, Beyers N, Hesseling PB, Donald PR. Evaluation of young children in contact with adult multidrug-resistant pulmonary tuberculosis: a 30-month follow-up. Pediatrics. 2002;109:765-771
123. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Management of persons exposed to multidrug-resistant tuberculosis. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1992;41(RR-11):61-71
124. Trebucq A. Should ethambutol be recommended for routine treatment of tuberculosis in children? A review of the literature. Int J Tuberc Lung Dis. 1997;1:12-15
125. Swanson DS, Starke JR. Drug-resistant tuberculosis in pediatrics. Pediatr Clin North Am. 1995;42:553-581
126. Steiner P, Rao M. Drug-resistant tuberculosis in children. Semin Pediatr Infect Dis. 1993;4:275-282
127. Ridzon R, Meador J, Maxwell R, Higgins K, Weismuller P, Onorato IM. Asymptomatic hepatitis in persons who received alternative preventive therapy with pyrazinamide and ofloxacin. Clin Infect Dis. 1997;24:1264-1265
128. Felton CP, Shah HP. Isoniazid: clinical use and toxicity. In: Rom WN, Garay S, eds. Tuberculosis. Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co; 1996
129. Snider DE Jr, Caras GJ. Isoniazid-associated hepatitis deaths: a review of available information. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1992;145:494-497
130. Kopanoff DE, Snider DE Jr, Caras GJ. Isoniazid-related hepatitis: a U.S. Public Health Service Cooperative Surveillance Study. 1978;117:991-1001
131. Mount F, Ferrebee S. Preventive effects of isoniazid in the treatment of primary tuberculosis in children. N Engl J Med. 1961;265:713-721
132. Hsu KH. Isoniazid in the prevention and treatment of tuberculosis. A 20-year study of the effectiveness in children. JAMA. 1974;229:528-533
133. Palusci VJ, O'Hare D, Lawrence RM. Hepatotoxicity and transaminase measurement during isoniazid chemoprophylaxis in children. Pediatr Infect Dis J. 1995;14:144-148
134. Vanderhoof JA, Ament ME. Fatal hepatic necrosis due to isoniazid chemoprophylaxis in a 15-year-old girl. J Pediatr. 1976;88:867-868
135. Moulding TS, Redeker AG, Kanel GC. Twenty isoniazid-associated deaths in one state. Am Rev Respir Dis. 1989;140:700-705
136. Reichler MR, Reves R, Bur S, et al. Treatment of latent tuberculosis infection in contacts of new tuberculosis cases in the United States. South Med J. 2002;95:414-420
137. Starr M, Sawyer S, Carlin J, Powell C, Newman R, Johnson P. A novel approach to monitoring adherence to preventive therapy for tuberculosis in adolescence. J Paediatr Child Health. 1999;35:350-354
138. Bock NN, Metzger BS, Tapia JR, Blumberg HM. A tuberculin screening and isoniazid preventive therapy program in an inner-city population. Am J Respir Crit Care Med. 1999;159:295-300
139. Perry S, Hovell MF, Blumberg E, et al. Urine testing to monitor adherence to TB preventive therapy. J Clin Epidemiol. 2002;55:235-238
140. Carey JW, Oxtoby MJ, Nguyen LP, Huynh V, Morgan M, Jeffery M. Tuberculosis beliefs among recent Vietnamese refugees in New York State. Public Health Rep. 1997;112:66-72
141. Morisky DE, Malotte CK, Choi P, et al. A patient education program to improve adherence rates with antituberculosis drug regimens. Health Educ Q. 1990;17:253-267
142. Morisky DE, Malotte CK, Ebin V, et al. Behavioral interventions for the control of tuberculosis among adolescents. Public Health Rep. 2001;116:568-574
143. Salabarria-Pena Y, Trout PT, Gill JK, Morisky DE, Muralles AA, Ebin VJ. Effects of acculturation and psychosocial factors in Latino adolescents' TB-related behaviors. Ethn Dis. 2001;11:661-675
144. Kohn MR, Arden MR, Vasilakis J, Shenker IR. Directly observed preventive therapy. Turning the tide against tuberculosis. Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med. 1996;150:727-729
145. Sass P, Cooper K, Robertson V. School-based tuberculosis testing and treatment program: comparing directly observed preventive therapy with traditional preventive therapy. J Public Health Manag Pract. 1996;2:32-40
146. Thompson RJ, Gustafson KE. Adaptation to Chronic Childhood Illness. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association; 1996
147. Lemanek KL. Empirically supported treatments in pediatric psychology: regimen adherence. J Pediatr Psychol. 2001;26:253-275
148. Farley J, Hines S, Musk A, Ferrus S, Tepper V. Assessment of adherence to antiviral therapy in HIV-infected children using the Medication Event Monitoring System, pharmacy refill, provider assessment, caregiver self-report, and appointment keeping. J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2003;33:211-218
149. Bender BG. Overcoming barriers to nonadherence in asthma treatment. J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2002;109(6 suppl):S554-S559
150. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. Guidelines for preventing the transmission of Mycobacterium tuberculosis in health-care facilities, 1994. MMWR Recomm Rep. 1994;43(RR-13):1-132
151. World Health Organization. Global Tuberculosis Control: WHO Report 2000. Geneva, Switzerland: World Health Organization; 2000
152. Mohr JA, Killebrew L, Muchmore HG, Felton FG, Rhoades ER. Transfer of delayed hypersensitivity. The role of blood transfusions in humans. JAMA. 1969;207:517-519