Combat casualties and race: What can we learn from the 2003-2004 Iraq conflict?

Armed Forces and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 2, 2005, Pages 201-225

  Gifford, Brian ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 14944352045     PISSN: 0095327X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0095327X0503100203     Document Type: Article

References (63)

1. See, for example, table D-17, US Department of Defense, Population Representation in the Military Services, Fiscal Year 2001 (Washington, DC: Office of the Under Secretary of Defense, Personnel and Readiness, 2003).
2. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
3. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
4. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
5. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
6. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
7. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
8. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
9. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
10. See Martin Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War? (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1993); Morris Janowitz, "The Social Demography of the All Volunteer Armed Force," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 86-93; Charles C. Moskos, John Sibley Butler, Alan Ned Sabrosky, and Alvin J. Schexnider, "Symposium: Race and the United States Military," Armed Forces & Society 6, 4 (Summer 1980): 586-613; Martin Binkin, Mark J. Eitelberg, Alvin J. Schexnider, and Marvin M. Smith, Blacks and the Military (Washington, DC: The Brookings Institution, 1982); Robert K. Fullinwider, "Choice, Justice, and Representation," in Who Defends America? Race, Sex, and Class in the Armed Forces, ed. Edwin Dorn (Washington, DC: Joint Center for Political Studies Press, 1989); Ruben Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities, Activists Charge," Washington Post, November 9, 1990; Juan Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf," Washington Post, January 20, 1991; David J. Armor, "Race and Gender in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 23, 1 (Fall 1996): 7-27; Andrew Gumbel, "Pentagon Targets Latinos and Mexicans to Man the Front Lines in War on Terror," The Independent, September 10, 2003, 11.
11. See, for example, Institute of Medicine, Unequal Treatment: Confronting Racial and Ethnic Disparities in Health Care, ed. Brian D. Smedley, Adrienne Y. Stith, and Alan R. Nelson (Washington, DC: National Academies Press, 2002).
12. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?; Binkin et al., Blacks and the Military.
13. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?; Binkin et al., Blacks and the Military.
14. See Margaret C. Harrell, Sheila Nataraj Kirby, Jennifer Sloan, Clifford M. Graf, Christopher J. McKelvey, and Jerry M. Sollinger, Barriers to Minority Participation in Special Operations Forces (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1999); Department of Defense, Population Representation, table B-30.
15. See Margaret C. Harrell, Sheila Nataraj Kirby, Jennifer Sloan, Clifford M. Graf, Christopher J. McKelvey, and Jerry M. Sollinger, Barriers to Minority Participation in Special Operations Forces (Santa Monica, CA: Rand, 1999); Department of Defense, Population Representation, table B-30.
16. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?
17. Charles C. Moskos, "The American Dilemma in Uniform: Race in the Armed Forces," Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science 406 (March 1973): 94-106.
18. Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities"; Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf."
19. Castaneda, "War Would Hurt Minorities"; Williams, "Race and the War in the Persian Gulf."
20. Charles C. Moskos and John Sibley Butler, All That We Can Be: Black Leadership and Racial Integration the Army Way (New York: Twentieth Century Fund, 1996).
21. Ibid., 9.
22. In fact, during the Persian Gulf War, Gen Colin L. Powell, then Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, publicly expressed disdain for such policies, asking rhetorically, "if the whole force accepts casualties, what would you wish me to do? Move the blacks from the positions they're in so that they will have a lower percentage of casualties?" Cited in Arch Puddington, "Black Leaders vs. Desert Storm," Commentary 91, 5 (1991):28-34.
23. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?, p. 86. See also Binkin et al., Blacks and the Military.
24. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?, p. 86. See also Binkin et al., Blacks and the Military.
25. For general discussions of these categories, see M.L.R. Smith, "Guerrillas in the Mist: Reassessing Strategy and Low Intensity Warfare," Review of International Studies 29 (2003): 19-37; J.J.A. Wallace, "Manoeuvre Theory in Operations Other Than War," Journal of Strategic Studies 19, 4 (1996): 207-226; Loren B. Thompson, "Low Intensity Conflict: An Overview," Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, ed. Loren B. Thompson (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989); Harry G. Summers, "A War is a War is War is a War," ibid. These categories are not exhaustive of all types of organized armed conflict, nor are they representative of all combatants' perspectives. They are theoretically rooted in the study of foreign policy options within a larger geopolitical context, and presuppose states' autonomous capacity for military action. In the contemporary context, the distinction is therefore most appropriate to interstate wars and the expeditionary activities of military and industrial powers.
26. For general discussions of these categories, see M.L.R. Smith, "Guerrillas in the Mist: Reassessing Strategy and Low Intensity Warfare," Review of International Studies 29 (2003): 19-37; J.J.A. Wallace, "Manoeuvre Theory in Operations Other Than War," Journal of Strategic Studies 19, 4 (1996): 207-226; Loren B. Thompson, "Low Intensity Conflict: An Overview," Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, ed. Loren B. Thompson (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989); Harry G. Summers, "A War is a War is War is a War," ibid. These categories are not exhaustive of all types of organized armed conflict, nor are they representative of all combatants' perspectives. They are theoretically rooted in the study of foreign policy options within a larger geopolitical context, and presuppose states' autonomous capacity for military action. In the contemporary context, the distinction is therefore most appropriate to interstate wars and the expeditionary activities of military and industrial powers.
27. For general discussions of these categories, see M.L.R. Smith, "Guerrillas in the Mist: Reassessing Strategy and Low Intensity Warfare," Review of International Studies 29 (2003): 19-37; J.J.A. Wallace, "Manoeuvre Theory in Operations Other Than War," Journal of Strategic Studies 19, 4 (1996): 207-226; Loren B. Thompson, "Low Intensity Conflict: An Overview," Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, ed. Loren B. Thompson (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989); Harry G. Summers, "A War is a War is War is a War," ibid. These categories are not exhaustive of all types of organized armed conflict, nor are they representative of all combatants' perspectives. They are theoretically rooted in the study of foreign policy options within a larger geopolitical context, and presuppose states' autonomous capacity for military action. In the contemporary context, the distinction is therefore most appropriate to interstate wars and the expeditionary activities of military and industrial powers.
28. For general discussions of these categories, see M.L.R. Smith, "Guerrillas in the Mist: Reassessing Strategy and Low Intensity Warfare," Review of International Studies 29 (2003): 19-37; J.J.A. Wallace, "Manoeuvre Theory in Operations Other Than War," Journal of Strategic Studies 19, 4 (1996): 207-226; Loren B. Thompson, "Low Intensity Conflict: An Overview," Low-Intensity Conflict: The Pattern of Warfare in the Modern World, ed. Loren B. Thompson (Lexington, MA: Lexington Books, 1989); Harry G. Summers, "A War is a War is War is a War," ibid. These categories are not exhaustive of all types of organized armed conflict, nor are they representative of all combatants' perspectives. They are theoretically rooted in the study of foreign policy options within a larger geopolitical context, and presuppose states' autonomous capacity for military action. In the contemporary context, the distinction is therefore most appropriate to interstate wars and the expeditionary activities of military and industrial powers.
29. The distinction between high- and low-intensity environments is seldom neat, and any particular conflict may contain elements of both types. For example, few hostile engagements have exhibited the clear distinction between war and operations other than war observed in the Second World War and the subsequent occupations of Japan and Germany. In Algeria during the 1950s and '60s, French military forces performed gendarmerie, occupation, and counterinsurgency duties in urban areas such as Algiers, while mounting conventional mountain and desert offensives against insurgents in the countryside. Thus the character of conflict may vary across both time and space.
30. See Harrell et al., Barriers to Minority Participation.
31. In 1983, blacks made up 18.9 percent of the US Marine Corps, compared to 28.7 percent of the Army. The corresponding percentages in 2001 were 14.9 and 26.2, respectively.
32. In fact, looking at these two engagements alone, African American casualties comprise about 17 percent of the total, a figure that is significantly larger than the 13.1 percent of the 1990 population of eighteen- to thirty-four-year-olds cited by Moskos and Butler for comparison (z = 2.39, p = .017), but still smaller than their presence in the ranks.
33. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
34. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
35. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
36. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
37. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
38. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
39. See Jerald G. Bachman, David R. Segal, Peter Freedman-Doan, and Patrick M. O'Malley, "Who Chooses Military Service? Correlates of Propensity and Enlistment in the US Armed Forces," Military Psychology 12, 1 (2000): 1-30; David R. Segal, Thomas J. Burns, William W. Falk, Michael P. Silver, and Bam Dev Sharda, "The All-Volunteer Force in the 1970s," Social Science Quarterly 79, 2 (1998):390-411; Jay D. Teachman, Vaughn R.A. Call, and Mady W. Segal, "The Selectivity of Military Enlistment," Journal of Political and Military Sociology 21 (1993):287-309; Charles Dale and Curtis Gilroy, "Determinants of Enlistments: A Macroeconomic Time-Series View," Armed Forces & Society 10, 2 (1984): 192-210; Charles Brown, "Military Enlistments: What Can We Learn From Geographic Variation?" The American Economic Review 75, 1 (1985): 228-234. 19. Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Moskos, "The American Dilemma."
40. Michael J. Wilson, James B. Greenlees, Tracey Hagerty, D. Wayne Hintze, and Lerome D. Lehnus, Youth Attitude Tracking Study: 1998 Propensity and Advertising Report (Arlington, VA: Defense Manpower Data Center, 2000).
41. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?; Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Brenda L. Moore, "African-American Women in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 17, 3 (1991): 363-384.
42. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?; Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Brenda L. Moore, "African-American Women in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 17, 3 (1991): 363-384.
43. Binkin, Who Will Fight the Next War?; Moskos and Butler, All That We Can Be; Brenda L. Moore, "African-American Women in the US Military," Armed Forces & Society 17, 3 (1991): 363-384.
44. However, see Javier Hernandez, "An Exploratory Study of Hispanic Officer Recruiting in the Mexican-American Community of South Central Los Angeles: Implications for the Officer Corps of the Future" (master's thesis, Naval Postgraduate School, 2003).
45. US Bureau of the Census, Statistical Abstract of the United States 2002. CD-ROM.
46. Wilson et al., Youth Attitude Tracking Study.
47. DoD, Population Representation in the Military Services.
48. Wilson et al., Youth Attitude Tracking Study; see also Pew Hispanic Center, "Fact Sheet: Hispanics in the Military," March 27, 2003.
49. Wilson et al., Youth Attitude Tracking Study; see also Pew Hispanic Center, "Fact Sheet: Hispanics in the Military," March 27, 2003.
50. Hispanics with low test-taking acumen may also be less likely to apply for enlistment. Hispanic applicants for enlistment in 2001 were 2.6 times more likely than whites to score in the two lowest AFQT categories. Black applicants were 3.1 times more likely than whites to score in these categories. See Population Representation in the Military Services.
51. US Department of Defense (DIOR/SIAD), "US Military Casualties - Operation Iraqi Freedom," http://web1.whs.osd.mil/mmid/rnmidhome.htm, accessed April 12, 2004.
52. The category is retained for completeness. Nonetheless, the lack of theoretically developed propositions prevents any in-depth analysis of "other races" throughout this study.
53. See Global Security.org, "US Forces Order of Battle, " http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat.htm, accessed December 2, 2003. See also Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, "Reserve and Guard Ordered to Alert More Troops for Iraq," New York Times, November 20, 2003.
54. See Global Security.org, "US Forces Order of Battle, " http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/ops/iraq_orbat.htm, accessed December 2, 2003. See also Eric Schmitt and Thom Shanker, "Reserve and Guard Ordered to Alert More Troops for Iraq," New York Times, November 20, 2003.
55. Combat personnel comprise less than 17 percent of the active-duty enlisted members and noncommissioned officers. The category applies only to these ranks, which make up about 84 percent of the active-duty forces.
56. Given the breadth and scale of the mission in Iraq, and the diversity of military units participating, there is little reason to expect that the racial composition of US forces there differs from the active-duty forces as a whole. One mediating factor might be the regional character of reservists and National Guard units in the Iraq theater.
57. A second measure of combat intensity, the ratio of hostile to nonhostile casualties, was also tested. Results were similar. The analysis below is therefore limited to average daily casualties, which are subject to less measurement ambiguity and probably more reliable.
58. These data are not available on the DIOR/SIAD website, but were provided to the author by Roger V. Jorstad, Director of the Statistical Information Analysis Division. The pattern is similar when the number of average daily casualties is substituted with the alternate measure of conflict intensity, the ratio of hostile to nonhostile casualties.
59. Eric Schmitt, "Army Study of Iraq War Details a 'Morass' of Supply Shortages," New York Times, February 3, 2004, A1.
60. Christopher Jehn and Zachary Selden, "The End of Conscription in Europe?" Contemporary Economic Policy 20, 2 (2002): 93-100.
61. See, for example, Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "The British Armed Services and the Participation of Minority Ethnic Communities: From Equal Opportunities to Diversity?" Sociological Review 49, 2 (2001): 219-235; and Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "Diversifying the Uniform? The Participation of Minority Ethnic Personnel in the British Armed Services," Armed Forces & Society 29, 4 (2003): 481-507; Catherine Miller, "The Death of Conscription," BBC News Online, June 29, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk
62. See, for example, Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "The British Armed Services and the Participation of Minority Ethnic Communities: From Equal Opportunities to Diversity?" Sociological Review 49, 2 (2001): 219-235; and Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "Diversifying the Uniform? The Participation of Minority Ethnic Personnel in the British Armed Services," Armed Forces & Society 29, 4 (2003): 481-507; Catherine Miller, "The Death of Conscription," BBC News Online, June 29, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk
63. See, for example, Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "The British Armed Services and the Participation of Minority Ethnic Communities: From Equal Opportunities to Diversity?" Sociological Review 49, 2 (2001): 219-235; and Christopher Dandeker and David Mason, "Diversifying the Uniform? The Participation of Minority Ethnic Personnel in the British Armed Services," Armed Forces & Society 29, 4 (2003): 481-507; Catherine Miller, "The Death of Conscription," BBC News Online, June 29, 2001, http://news.bbc.co.uk