Noninvasive and minimally invasive methods for transdermal glucose monitoring

Diabetes Technology and Therapeutics

Volumn 7, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 174-197

  Sieg, Anke ^a,b   Guy, Richard H ^a,c   Delgado Charro, M Begoña ^a,c  

^a UNIVERSITY OF GENEVA   (Switzerland)

^b Rusham Park Technical Centre   (United Kingdom)

^c University of Bath   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ASPIRATION BIOPSY; BLOOD GLUCOSE MONITORING; DIABETES MELLITUS; DIAGNOSTIC KIT; ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION; EPIDERMIS; EXTRACTION; HUMAN; INTERSTITIAL FLUID; IONTOPHORESIS; LIGHT SCATTERING; MICROVASCULATURE; NEAR INFRARED SPECTROSCOPY; NON INVASIVE MEASUREMENT; OPTICAL BIOSENSOR; PHOTOACOUSTIC SPECTROSCOPY; POLARIMETRY; PRIORITY JOURNAL; RAMAN SPECTROMETRY; REVIEW; SPECTROSCOPY; STRATUM CORNEUM; ULTRASOUND;

ADMINISTRATION, CUTANEOUS; BIOSENSING TECHNIQUES; BLOOD GLUCOSE; HUMANS; MICROCIRCULATION; MONITORING, PHYSIOLOGIC; REGRESSION ANALYSIS; SKIN;

EID: 14844345011     PISSN: 15209156     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1089/dia.2005.7.174     Document Type: Review

References (152)

1. Jones M, Harrison JM: The future of diabetes technologies and therapeutics. Diabetes Technol Ther 2002;4:351-359.
2. The Diabetes Control and Complications Trial Research Group: The effect of intensive treatment of diabetes on the development and progression of long-term complications in insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. N Engl J Med 1993;329:977-986.
3. UK Prospective Diabetes Study Group: Intensive blood-glucose control with sulphonylureas or insulin compared with conventional treatment and risk of complications in patients with type 2 diabetes (UKPDS 33). Lancet 1998;352:837-853.
4. Ohkubo Y, Kishikawa H, Araki E, Miyata T, Isami S, Motoyoshi S, Kojima Y, Furuyoshi N, Shichizi M: Intensive insulin therapy prevents the progression of diabetic microvascular complications in Japanese patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus: a randomized prospective 6-year study. Diabetes Res Clin Pract 1995;28:103-117.
5. Diabetes Control and Complications Trial (DCCT)/Epidemiology of Diabetes Interventions and Complications Trial (EDIC) Research Group: Sustained effect of intensive treatment of type 1 diabetes mellitus on development and progression of diabetic nephropathy. JAMA 2003;290:2159-2167.
6. Koschinsky T, Heinemann L: Sensors for glucose monitoring: technical and clinical aspects. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2001;17:113-123.
7. McNichols RJ, Coté GL: Optical glucose sensing in biological fluids: an overview. J Biomed Opt 2000;5:1-16.
8. Coté GL: Noninvasive and minimally-invasive optical monitoring technologies for monitoring health and nutritional status in mothers and young children. J Nutr 2001;131:1596S-1604S.
9. Klonoff DC: Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring. Diabetes Care 1997;20:433-437.
10. Roe JN, Smoller BR: Bloodless glucose measurements. Crit Rev Ther Drug Carr Syst 1998;15:199-241.
11. Pickup J, McCartney L, Rolinski O, Birch D: In vivo glucose sensing for diabetes management: progress towards non-invasive monitoring. BMJ 1999;319:1289-1301.
12. Heise HM: Non-invasive monitoring of metabolites using near infrared spectroscopy: state of the art. Horm Metab Res 1996;28:527-534.
13. Khalil OS: Spectroscopic and clinical aspects of non-invasive glucose measurements. Clin Chem 1999;45:165-177.
14. Kerner W: Implantable glucose sensors: present status and future developments. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes 2001;109(Suppl 2):S341-S346.
15. McShane MJ: Potential for glucose monitoring with nanoengineered fluorescent biosensors. Diabetes Technol Ther 2002;4:533-538.
16. Badugu R, Lakowicz JR, Geddes CD: A glucose sensing contact lens: a non-invasive technique for continuous physiological glucose monitoring. J Fluoresc 2003;13:371-374.
17. Rao G, Guy RH, Glikfeld P, LaCourse WR, Leung L, Tamada JA, Potts RO, Azimi NT: Reverse iontophoresis: non invasive glucose monitoring in vivo in humans. Pharm Res 1995;12:1869-1873.
18. Tamada JA, Bohannon NJV, Potts RO: Measurement of glucose in diabetics subjects using non invasive transdermal extraction. Nat Med 1995;1:1198-1201.
19. Eastman RC, Chase HP, Buckingham B, Hathout EH, Fuller-Byk L, Leptien A, Van Wyhe MM, Davis TL, Fermi SJ, Pechler H, Sahyun G, Lopatin M, Wang BY, Wei C, Bartkowiak M, Ginsberg BH, Tamada JA, Pitzer KR: Use of the GlucoWatch Biographer in children and adolescents with diabetes. Pediatr Diabetes 2002;3:127-134.
20. Potts RO, Tamada JA, Tierney MJ: Glucose monitoring by reverse iontophoresis. Diabetes Metab Res Rev 2002;18(Suppl):S49-S53.
21. Kost J, Mitragotri S, Gabbay RA, Pishko M, Langer R: Transdermal monitoring of glucose and other analytes using ultrasound. Nat Med 2000;6:347-350.
22. Mitragotri S, Coleman M, Kost J, Langer R: Analysis of ultrasonically extracted interstitial fluid as a predictor of blood glucose levels. J Appl Physiol 2000;89:961-966.
23. Smart WH, Subramanian K, Orloff E, inventors: Silicon microprobe with integrated biosensor. US patent application 20020137998. September 26, 2002.
24. Smart WH, Subramanian K: The use of silicon microfabrication technology in painless blood glucose monitoring. Diabetes Technol Ther 2000;2:549-559.
25. Gebhardt S, Faupel M, Fowler R, Kapsner C, Lincoln D, McGee V, Pasqua J, Steed L, Wangsness M, Xu F, Vanstory M: Glucose sensing in transdermal body fluid collected under continuous vacuum pressure via micropores in the stratum corneum. Diabetes Technol Ther 2003;5:159-166.
26. Stout PJ, Peled N, Erckson BJ, Hilgers ME, Racchini JR, Hoegh TB: Comparison of glucose levels in dermal interstitial fluid and finger capillary blood. Diabetes Technol Ther 2001;3:81-90.
27. Collison ME, Stout PJ, Glushko TS, Pokela KN, Mullins-Hirte DJ, Racchini JR, Walter MA, Mecca SP, Rundquist J, Allen JJ, Hilgers ME, Hoegh TB: Analytical characterization of electrochemical biosensor test strips for measurement of glucose in low-volume interstitial fluid samples. Clin Chem 1999;45: 1665-1673.
28. Hayashi Y, Livshits L, Caduff A, Feldman Yu: Dielectric spectroscopy study of specific glucose influence on human erythrocyte membranes. J Phys D Appl Phys 2003;36:369-374.
29. Caduff A, Hirt E, Feldman Yu, Ali Z, Heinemann L: First human experiments with a novel non-invasive, non-optical continuous glucose monitoring system. Biosens Bioelectron 2003;19:209-217.
30. Pfützner A, Caduff A, Larbig M, Schrepfer T, Forst T: Impact of posture and fixation technique on impedance spectroscopy used for continuous and non-invasive glucose monitoring. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:435-441.
31. Malin SF, Ruchti TL, Blank TB, Thennadil SN, Monfre SL: Noninvasive prediction of glucose by near-infrared diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. Clin Chem 1999;45:1651-1658.
32. Blank TB, Ruchti TL, Lorenz AD, Monfre SL, Makarewicz MR, Mattu M, Hazen KH: Clinical results from a non-invasive blood glucose monitor. Proc SPIE 2002;4624:1-10.
33. Ruchti TL, Blank TB, Lorenz AD, Makarewicz MR, Mattu M: Evaluation of a non-invasive glucose sensor [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:269.
34. Fleming CM, Davies HT, Ratner R, Brown CW, Hull EL, Maynard JD: Use of NIR spectroscopy to detect diabetes [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:243.
35. Robinson MR, Fleming C, Jones H, Rohrscheib M, inventors; InLight Solutions, Inc., assignee: Apparatus and method for non-invasive spectroscopic measurement of analytes in tissue using a matched reference analyte. US patent application 20030191377. October 9, 2003.
36. Harjunmaa H, Kun S, Burrell R, Leuenberger J, Lock JP, Peura RA: Ex-vivo measurements of a non-invasive continuous blood glucose monitor [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:249.
37. Harjunmaa H, Kun S, Peura RA, Rolls JA, inventors: Non-invasive substance concentration measurement using and [sic] optical bridge. US patent application 20030204133. October 30, 2003.
38. Harjunmaa H, Mendelson Y, Wang Y, inventors; Vivascan Corporation, assignee: Electromagnetic method and apparatus to measure constituents of human or animal tissue. US patent 5,178,142. January 12, 1993.
39. Maruo K, Tsurugi M, Tamura M, Ozaki Y: In vivo noninvasive measurement of blood glucose by nearinfrared diffuse-reflectance spectroscopy. Appl Spectrosc 2003;57:1236-1244.
40. Maruo K, Tsurugi M, Chin J, Ota T, Arimoto H, Yamada Y, Tamura M, Ishii M, Ozaki Y: Noninvasive blood glucose assay using a newly developed near-infrared system. IEEE J Sel Top Quant Electron 2003;9:322-330.
41. Pawluczyk R, Scecina T, Cadell TE: Method for determination of analytes using near infrared, adjacent visible spectrum and an array of longer near infrared wavelengths. CA patent application 2383727. August 31, 2000.
42. Samsoodar J, Ashwani K, Geng L, Lynch M: Non-invasive measurement of HbA1c using near infrared spectroscopy [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2003;5:269.
43. Sodickson LA, Block MJ: Kromoscopic analysis: a possible alternative to spectroscopic analysis for noninvasive measurement of analytes in vivo. Clin Chem 1994;40:1838-1844.
44. Block MJ, Misner MW, Guthermann HE: Comparative in vitro and non-invasive in vivo Kromoscopic measurements. J Near Infrared Spectrosc 2002;10:165-176.
45. Yeh SJ, Hanna CF, Khalil OS: Monitoring blood glucose changes in cutaneous tissue by temperature-modulated localized reflectance measurements. Clin Chem 2003;49:924-934.
46. Malchoff CD, Shoukri K, Landau JI, Buchert JM: A novel noninvasive blood glucose monitor. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2268-2275.
47. Zheng P, Kramer CE, Barnes CW, Braig JR, Sterling BB: Noninvasive glucose determination by oscillating thermal gradient spectrometry. Diabetes Technol Ther 2000;2:17-25.
48. Berman HL, Roe JN, inventors: Infrared ATR glucose measurement system (II). US patent application 20020151773. October 17, 2002.
49. Chaiken J, Peterson CM, inventors; LighTouch Medical, Inc., assignee: Method for non-invasive measurement of an analyte. US patent 6,377,828. April 23, 2002.
50. Chaiken J, Peterson CM; LighTouch Medical, Inc., assignee: Method for non-invasive measurement of an analyte. US patent 6,044,285. March 28, 2000.
51. Heinemann L, Schmelzeisen-Redeker G: Non-invasive continuous glucose monitoring in Type I diabetic patients with optical glucose sensors. Diabetologia 1998;41:848-854.
52. Heinemann L, Krämer U, Klötzer HM, Hein M, Volz D, Hermann M, Heise T, Rave K: Noninvasive glucose measurement by monitoring of scattering coefficient during oral glucose tolerance tests. Diabetes Technol Ther 2000;2:211-220.
53. Cohen O, Fine I, Monashkin E, Karasik A: Glucose correlation with light scattering patterns - a novel method for non-invasive glucose measurements. Diabetes Technol Ther 2003;5:11-17.
54. Fine I, Fikhte B, Shvartsman LD: Occlusion spectroscopy as a new paradigm for noninvasive blood measurements. Proc SPIE 2001;4263:122-130.
55. Pesach B, Nagar R, BeIfer I, Argaman D, Askenazi S, Adoram A, Roffeh Y: Continuous non-invasive venous blood glucose monitor [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2003;5:264.
56. Raz I, Wainstein J, Argaman D: Continuous non-invasive venous blood glucose monitor [abstract]. Diabetes 2003;52(Suppl 1):A98.
57. Grinberg L, Ben-David M, Antebi A, Rahimi H, Bitton G: Ex-vivo measurements of non-invasive continuous blood glucose monitor [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:248.
58. Yum SL, Roe J: Capillary blood sampling for self-monitoring of blood glucose. Diabetes Technol Ther 1999;1:29-37.
59. Pellet MA, Hadgraft J, Roberts MS: The back diffusion of glucose across human skin in vitro. Int J Pharm 1999;193:27-35.
60. Freinkel RK: Carbohydrate metabolism of epidermis. In: Goldsmith LA, ed. Physiology, Biochemistry, and Molecular Biology of the Skin. New York: Oxford University Press, 1993:452-461.
61. Halprin KM, Ohkawara A: Glucose utilization in the human epidermis; its control by hexokinase. J Invest Dermatol 1966;46:278-282.
62. Schurer NY, Elias PM: The biochemistry and function of stratum corneum lipids. Adv Lipid Res 1991;24:27-56.
63. Cunningham DD, Young DF: Measurement of glucose on the skin surface, in stratum corneum and in transcutaneous extracts: implications for physiological sampling. Clin Chem Lab Med 2003;41:1224-1228.
64. Cheong WF, Prahl SA, Welch AL: A review of the optical properties of biological tissues. IEEE J Quant Electron 1990;26:2166-2185.
65. van Gemert MJC, Jacques SL, Sterenborg HJCM, Star WM: Skin optics. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1989;36:1146-1154.
66. Andersen RR: Optics of the skin. In: Lim HW, Soter NA, eds. Clinical Photomedicine. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1993:19-35.
67. Burmeister JJ, Arnold MA: Evaluation of measurement sites for noninvasive blood glucose sensing with near-infrared transmission spectroscopy. Clin Chem 1999;45:1621-1627.
68. Aussedat B, Dupire-Angel M, Gifford R, Klein JC, Wilson GS, Reach G: Interstitial glucose concentration and glycemia: implications for continuous subcutaneous glucose monitoring. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2000;278:E716-E728.
69. Rebrin K, Steil GM, Van Antwerp WP, Mastrototaro JJ: Subcutaneous glucose predicts plasma glucose independent of insulin: implications for continuous monitoring. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 1999;277:E561-E571.
70. Rebrin K, Steil GM: Can interstitial glucose assessment replace blood glucose measurements? Diabetes Technol Ther 2000;2:461-172.
71. Kulcu E, Tamada JA, Reach G, Potts RO, Lesho MJ: Physiological differences between interstitial glucose and blood glucose measured in human subjects. Diabetes Care 2003;26:2405-2409.
72. Regittnig W, Ellmerer M, Fauler G, Sendlhofer G, Trajanoski Z, Leis HJ, Schaupp L, Wach P, Fieber TR: Assessment of transcapillary glucose exchange in human skeletal muscle and adipose tissue. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2003;285:E241-E251.
73. Sternberg F, Meyerhoff C, Mennel FJ, Mayer H, Bischof F, Pfeiffer EF: Does fall in tissue glucose precede fall in blood glucose? Diabetologia 1996;39:609-612.
74. Moberg E, Hagstrom-Toft E, Arner P, Bolinder J: Protracted glucose fall in subcutaneous adipose tissue and skeletal muscle compared with blood during insulin-induced hypoglycemia. Diabetologia 1997;40: 1320-1326.
75. Burnette RR: Iontophoresis. In: Hadgraft J, Guy RH, eds. Transdermal Drug Delivery. New York: Marcel Dekker, 1989:247-291.
76. Rao G, Glikfeld P, Guy RH: Reverse iontophoresis: development of a non invasive approach for glucose monitoring. Pharm Res 1993;10:1751-1755.
77. Tierney MJ, Tamada JA, Potts RO, Jovanovic L, Garg S; the Cygnus Research Team: Clinical evaluation of the GlucoWatch Biographer: a continual, non-invasive glucose monitor for patients with diabetes. Biosens Bioelectron 2001;16:621-629.
78. Tamada JA, Garg S, Jovanovic L, Pitzer KR, Fermi S, Potts RO: Noninvasive glucose monitoring - comprehensive clinical results. JAMA 1999;282:1839-1844.
79. Pitzer KR, Desai S, Dunn T, Edelmann S, Yakalakshmi Y, Kennedy J, Tamada JA, Potts RO: Detection of hypoglycemia with the Glucowatch Biographer. Diabetes Care 2001;24:881-885.
80. Garg SK, Potts RO, Ackerman NR, Fermi SJ, Tamada JA, Chase HP: Correlation of fingerstick blood glucose measurements with Glucowatch Biographer glucose results in young subjects with type 1 diabetes. Diabetes Care 1999;22:1708-1714.
81. Clarke WL, Cox D, Gonder-Frederick LA, Carter W, Pohl SL: Evaluating clinical accuracy of systems for self-monitoring of blood glucose. Diabetes Care 1987;10:622-628.
82. The Diabetes Research in Children Network (DirecNet) Study Group: Accuracy of the Glucowatch G2 Biographer and the continuous glucose monitoring system during hypoglycemia. Diabetes Care 2004;27:722-726.
83. Tamada JA, Lesho M, Desai S, Eastman R: Detection of and prediction algorithms for hypoglycemia [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:225.
84. Tsalikian E, Kollman C, Fiallo-Scharrer R, Beck RW, Buckingham BA, Mauras N, Weinzimer S, Tamborlane W, Ruedy K; the Diabetes Research in Children Network (DirecNet) Study Group: Down alert function of the Glucowatch® G2™ Biographer (GW2B) during insulin-induced hypoglycemia in children [abstract]. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:276-277.
85. Sieg A, Guy RH, Delgado-Charro MB: Reverse iontophoresis for noninvasive glucose monitoring: the internal standard concept. J Pharm Sci 2003;92:2295-2302.
86. Sieg A, Guy RH, Delgado-Charro MB: Noninvasive glucose monitoring by reverse iontophoresis in vivo: application of the internal standard concept. Clin Chem 2004;50:1383-1390.
87. Sieg A, Guy RH, Delgado-Charro MB: Simultaneous extraction of urea and glucose by reverse iontophoresis in vivo. Pharm Res 2004;21:1805-1810.
88. Knoll M, Adam S, Bahr E, Eshold J, Ross B, Steinkuhl R, Sundermeier C, Haueter U, Reihl B, Vering T: Minimally invasive suction sampling unit for interstitial fluid enhanced by electroosmotic mass transport. Sens Actuators B 2002;87:150-158.
89. Kost J: Ultrasound-assisted insulin delivery and non-invasive glucose sensing. Diabetes Technol Ther 2002;4:489-197.
90. Mitragotri S, Kost J: Low-frequency sonophoresis. A review. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2004;56:589-601.
91. 2O as tracer molecule. J Pharm Sci 2000;89:1170-1179.
92. Mitragotri S, Coleman M, Kost J, Langer R: Transdermal extraction of analytes using low-frequency ultrasound. Pharm Res 2000;17:466-470.
93. Chuang H, Taylor E, Davidson TW: Clinical evaluation of a continuous minimally invasive glucose flux sensor placed over ultrasonically permeated skin. Diabetes Technol Ther 2004;6:21-30.
94. Tierney MJ, Kim HL, Burns MD, Tamada JA, Potts RO: Electroanalysis of glucose in transcutaneously extracted samples. Electroanalysis 2000;12:666-671.
95. Kiistala U: Suction blister device for separation of viable epidermis from dermis. J Invest Dermatol 1968;50:129-137.
96. Kutlu N, Svedman P: Suction blister wounding, morphological and functional aspects. Vasc Surg 1992;26:388-399.
97. Svedman P, Svedman C: Skin mini-erosion sampling technique: feasibility study with regard to serial glucose measurement. Pharm Res 1998;15:883-888.
98. Groth S, Staberg B: Suction blisters of the skin: a compartment with physiological, interstitium-like properties. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1984;44:311-316.
99. Volden G, Thorsrud AK, Bjornson I, Jellum E: Biochemical composition of suction blister fluid determined by high resolution multicomponent analysis (capillary gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and two-dimensional electrophoresis). J Invest Dermatol 1980;75:421-424.
100. Jensen BM, Bjerring P, Christiansen JS, Orskov H: Glucose content in human skin-relationship with blood-glucose levels. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1995;55:427-432.
101. Svedman C, Samra JS, Clark ML, Levy JC, Frayn KN: Skin mini-erosion technique for monitoring metabolites in interstitial fluid: its feasibility demonstrated by OGTT results in diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1999;59:115-124.
102. Paranjape M, Garra J, Brida S, Schneider T, White R, Currie J: A PDMS dermal patch for non-intrusive transdermal glucose sensing. Sens Actuator A 2003;104:195-204.
103. Prausnitz MR: Microneedles for transdermal drug delivery. Adv Drug Deliv Rev 2003;56:581-587.
104. Smart WH, Subramanian K: The use of silicon microfabrication technology in painless blood glucose monitoring. Diabetes Technol Ther 2000;2:549-559.
105. th International Symposium on Controlled Release of Bioactive Materials [CD-ROM]. Minneapolis, MN: Controlled Release Society, 2003.
106. Kayashima S, Arai T, Noritake M, Nagata N, Kikuchi K, Ito N, Matsumoto Y, Kaneyoshi A, Kimura J, Kuriyama T: New transcutaneous sampling of glucose for patients with type II diabetes using an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor. Clin Chim Acta 1995;240:11-19.
107. Kayashima S, Arai T, Kikuchi M, Nagata N, Ito N, Kuriyama T, Kimura J: Suction effusion fluid from skin and constituent analysis: new candidate for interstitial fluid. Am J Physiol 1992;263:H1623-H1627.
108. Ito N, Kayashima S, Kimura J, Kuriyama T, Arai T, Kikuchi M, Nagata N: Development of a transcutaneous blood-constituent monitoring method using a suction effusion fluid collection technique and an ion-sensitive field-effect transistor glucose sensor. Med Biol Eng Comput 1994;32:242-246.
109. Shen YC, Davies AG, Linfield EH, Taday PF, Arnone DD: The use of Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy for the quantitative determination of glucose concentration in whole blood. Phys Med Biol 2003;48:2023-2032.
110. Gabriely L, Wozniak R, Mevorach M, Kaplan J, Aharon Y, Shamoon H: Transcutaneous glucose measurement using near-infrared spectroscopy during hypoglycemia. Diabetes Care 2003;22:2026-2032.
111. Arimoto H, Tarumi M, Yamada Y: Temperature-insensitive measurement of glucose concentration based on near infrared spectroscopy and partial least squares analysis. Opt Rev 2003;10:74-76.
112. Huang L, Ding HS, Wang GZ: The preliminary study on noninvasive detection using NIR diffusion reflectance spectrum for monitoring blood glucose. Spectrosc Spectr Anal 2002;22:387-391.
113. Helwig AM, Arnold MA, Small GW: Evaluation of kromoscopy: resolution of glucose and urea. Appl Opt 2000;39:4715-4720.
114. Misner MW, Block MJ: Noninvasive measurement by kromoscopic analysis. Spectroscopy 2000;15:51-55.
115. Amerov AK, Arnold MA: In vitro kromoscopic analysis of glucose in blood. Proc SPIE 2003;4965:7-16.
116. Block MJ, Misner MW, Guthermann HE: Comparative in vitro and non-invasive in vivo kromoscopic measurements. J Near Infrared Spectrosc 2002;10:165-176.
117. Guthermann HE, Misner MW, Block MJ: In vitro to in vivo calibration transfer in Kromoscopy [abstract]. In: Abstracts of Papers of the American Chemical Society, Vol. 224. Washington, DC: American Chemical Society, 2002:019-ANYL.
118. Amerov AK, Sun Y, Small GW, Arnold MA: Kromoscopic measurement of glucose in the first overtone region of the near infrared spectrum. Proc SPIE 2002;4624:11-19.
119. Lawson EE, Barry BW, Williams AC, Edwards HGM: Biomedical applications of Raman spectroscopy. J Raman Spectrosc 1997;28:111-117.
120. Schrader B, Dippel B, Fendel S, Keller S, Löchte T, Riedl M, Schulte R, Tatsch E: MR FT Raman spectroscopy - a new tool in medical diagnosis. J Mol Struct 1997;408/409:23-31.
121. Berger AJ, Itzkan I, Feld MS: Feasibility of measuring blood glucose concentration by near infrared Raman spectroscopy. Spectrochim Acta A 1997;53:287-292.
122. Lambert JL, Morookian JM, Sirk SJ, Borchert MS: Measurement of aqueous glucose in a model anterior chamber using Raman spectroscopy. J Raman Spectrosc 2002;33:524-529.
123. Wicksted JP, Erckens RJ, Motamedi M, March W: Monitoring of aqueous humour metabolites using Raman spectroscopy. Proc SPIE 1994;2135:264-274.
124. Wang SY, Hasty CE, Watson PA, Wicksted JP, Stith RD, March WF: Analysis of metabolites in aqueous solutions by using laser Raman spectroscopy. Appl Opt 1993;32:925-929.
125. Berger AJ, Koo TW, Itzkan I, Feld MS: A method of linear multivariate calibration. Anal Chem 1998;70:623-627.
126. Spiegelman CH, McShane MJ, Coté GL, Goetz MJ, Motamedi M, Yue QL: Theoretical justification of wavelength selection in PLS calibration: development of a new algorithm. Anal Chem 1998;70:35-44.
127. Yonzon CR, Haynes CL, Zhang X, Walsh JT, Van Duyne RP: A glucose biosensor based on surface-enhanced Raman scattering: improved partition layer, temporal stability, reversibility, and resistance to serum protein interference. Anal Chem 2004;76:78-85.
128. Varadan VK, Whitchurch A, Saurkesi K: Non-invasive biosensor and wireless interrogating system for glucose in blood. Proc SPIE 2003;5055:140-146.
129. Cameron BD, Coté GL: Noninvasive glucose sensing utilizing a digital closed-loop polarimetric approach. IEEE Trans Biomed Eng 1997;44:1221-1227.
130. March W, Engerman R, Rabinovitch B: Optical monitor of glucose. Trans ASAIO 1979;25:28-31.
131. March WF, Rabinovitch B, Adams RL: Noninvasive glucose monitoring of the aqueous humour of the eye: Part II. Animal studies and the scleral lens. Diabetes Care 1982;5:259-265.
132. King TW, Coté GL, McNichols R, Goetz MJJ: Multispectral polarimetric glucose detection using a single Pockels cell. Opt Eng 1994;33:2746-2753.
133. Baba JS, Cameron BD, Them S, Coté GL: Effect of temperature, pH, and corneal birefringence on polarimetric glucose monitoring in the eye. J Biomed Opt 2002;7:321-328.
134. Baba JS, Cooper CT, Coté GL: Modelling the rabbit's eye with the Mueller matrix for birefringent properties. Proc SPIE 2003;4965:104-110.
135. Baba JS, Coté GL: Dual-detector polarimetry for compensation of motion artifact in a glucose sensing system. Proc SPIE 2002;4624:76-80.
136. Boeckle S, Rovati LL, Ansari RR: Polarimetric glucose sensing using Brewster-reflection applying a rotating retarder analyzer. Proc SPIE 2003;5143:114-125.
137. Cameron BD, Baba JS, Coté GL: Measurement of the glucose transport time delay between the blood and aqueous humor of the eye for the eventual development of a noninvasive glucose sensor. Diabetes Technol Ther 2001;3:201-207.
138. Kohl M, Cope M, Essenpreis M, Bocker D: Influence of glucose concentration on light scattering in tissue-simulating phantoms. Opt Lett 1994;19:2170-2172.
139. Kohl M, Essenpreis M, Cope M: The influence of glucose concentration upon the transport of light in tissue-simulating phantoms. Phys Med Biol 1995;40:1267-1287.
140. Bruulsema JT, Hayward JE, Farrell TJ, Patterson MS, Heinemann L, Berger M, Koschinsky T, Sandahl-Christiansen J, Orskov H: Correlation between blood glucose concentration in diabetics and noninvasively measured tissue optical scattering coefficient. Opt Lett 1997;22:190-192.
141. Maier JS, Walker SA, Fantini S, Franceschini MA, Gratton E: Possible correlation between blood glucose concentration and the reduced scattering coefficient of tissues in the near infrared. Opt Lett 1994;19:2062-2064.
142. Huang D, Swanson EA, Lin CP, Schuman JS, Stinson WG, Chang W, Hee MR, Flotte T, Gregory K, Puliafito CA, Fujimoto JG: Optical coherence tomography. Science 1991;254:1178-1181.
143. Larin KV, Motamedi M, Ashitkov TV, Esenaliev RO: Specificity of non-invasive blood glucose sensing using optical coherence tomography: a pilot study. Phys Med Biol 2003;48:1371-1390.
144. Esenaliev RO, Larin KV, Larina IV, Motamedi M: Noninvasive monitoring of glucose concentration with optical coherence tomography. Opt Lett 2001;26:992-994.
145. Larin KV, Eledrisi MS, Motamedi M, Esenaliev RO: Noninvasive blood glucose monitoring with optical coherence tomography: a pilot study in human subjects. Diabetes Care 2002;25:2263-2267.
146. MacKenzie HA, Ashton HS, Spiers S, Shen Y, Freeborn SS, Hannigan J, Lindberg J, Rae P: Advances in photoacoustic noninvasive glucose testing. Clin Chem 1999;45:1587-1595.
147. Spanner G, Niessner R: Noninvasive determination of blood constituents using an array of modulated laser diodes-and a photoacoustic sensor head. Fresenius J Anal Chem 1996;355:327-328.
148. MacKenzie HA, Ashton HS, Shen YC, Lindberg J, Rae P, Quan KM, Spiers S: Blood glucose measurements by photoacoustics. OSA TOPS 1998;22:156-159.
149. Zhao Z, Myllylae RA: Photoacoustic determination of glucose concentration in whole blood by a near-infrared laser diode. Proc SPIE 2001;4256:77-83.
150. Zhao Z, Myllylae RA: Photoacoustic blood glucose and skin measurement based on optical scattering effect. Proc SPIE 2002;707:153-157.
151. Shen Y, Spiers S, MacKenzie HA, Hugh A: Time resolved aspects of pulsed photoacoustic spectroscopy. Anal Sci 2001;17:s221-s222.
152. Burnette RR, DeNuzzio JD: Impedance spectroscopy: applications to human skin. In: Potts RO, Guy RH, eds. Mechanisms of Transdermal Drug Delivery. New York: Mercel Dekker, 1997:215-230.