Pharmacotherapy of complex regional pain syndrome

American Journal of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation

Volumn 84, Issue 3 SUPPL., 2005, Pages

  Harden, R Norman ^a  

^a REHABILITATION INSTITUTE OF CHICAGO   (United States)

Author keywords

Algorithm; Causalgia; Chronic Pain; Chronic Regional Pain Syndrome; Clinical Trials; Diagnosis; Double Blind; Literature Review; Neuropathic Pain; Pharmacotherapy; Randomized; Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy; Taxonomy; Treatment

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; AMITRIPTYLINE; ANTICONVULSIVE AGENT; ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; ASCORBIC ACID; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCITONIN; CARBAMAZEPINE; CITALOPRAM; CLONIDINE; CORTICOSTEROID; DIMETHYL SULFOXIDE; DIZOCILPINE; GABAPENTIN; IMIPRAMINE; IMMUNOSUPPRESSIVE AGENT; KETOPROFEN; LAMOTRIGINE; MORPHINE; N METHYL DEXTRO ASPARTIC ACID RECEPTOR BLOCKING AGENT; NIFEDIPINE; NONSTEROID ANTIINFLAMMATORY AGENT; OPIATE; OXCARBAZEPINE; PAROXETINE; PHENYTOIN; SCAVENGER; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; TRICYCLIC ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENLAFAXINE;

ADRENERGIC SYSTEM; ALGORITHM; CAUSALGIA; CHRONIC PAIN; CLINICAL TRIAL; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROME; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROME TYPE I; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; DIAGNOSTIC TEST; DRUG MECHANISM; HUMAN; INFLAMMATION; MEDICAL LITERATURE; NEUROPATHIC PAIN; NEUROPATHY; NOCICEPTION; RANDOMIZED CONTROLLED TRIAL; REVIEW; SENSITIZATION; SIDE EFFECT; SYSTEMATIC REVIEW; TAXONOMY; TOPICAL TREATMENT;

ALGORITHMS; AUTONOMIC NERVE BLOCK; CHRONIC DISEASE; COMPLEX REGIONAL PAIN SYNDROMES; HUMANS;

EID: 13844292726     PISSN: 08949115     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1097/01.PHM.0000154906.87708.C9     Document Type: Review

References (146)

1. Mitchell SW: Injuries of the Nerves and Their Consequences. Philadelphia, JB Lippincott, 1872
2. Leriche R: De la causalgie envisagee comme une nevrite du sympathique et de son traitement per la denudation et l'excision des plexus nerveux periarteriels. Presse Med 1916;24:178-80
3. Livingston WK: Pain Mechanisms: A Physiologic Interpretation of Causalgia and Its Related States. New York, Plenum Press, 1976
4. Sunderland S: Pain mechanisms in causalgia. J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry 1976;39:471-80
5. Bennett GJ, Xie YK: A peripheral mononeuropathy in rat that produces disorders of pain sensation like those seen in man. Pain 1988;33:87-107
6. Janig, W, Stanton-Hicks M (eds): Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy: A Reappraisal. Seattle, IASP Press, 1996
7. Stanton-Hicks M, Janig W, Hassenbusch S, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Changing concepts and taxonomy. Pain 1995;63:127-33
8. Bruehl S, Harden RN, Galer BS, et al: External validation of IASP diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome and proposed research diagnostic criteria: International Association for the Study of Pain. Pain 1999;81:147-54
9. Galer BS, Bruehl S, Harden RN: IASP diagnostic criteria for complex regional pain syndrome: A preliminary empirical validation study. International Association for the Study of Pain. Clin J Pain 1998;14:48-54
10. Harden RN, Bruehl S, Galer B, et al: Complex regional pain syndrome: Are the IASP diagnostic criteria valid and sufficiently comprehensive? Pain 1999;83:211-9
11. Merikangas KR, Dartigues JF, Whitaker A, et al: Diagnostic criteria for migraine: A validity study. Neurology 1994;44: S11-6
12. Hord ED, Oaklander AL: Complex regional pain syndrome: A review of evidence-supported treatment options. Curr Pain Headache Rep 2003;7:188-96
13. Stanton-Hicks M, Baron R, Boas R, et al: Complex regional pain syndromes: Guidelines for therapy. Clin J Pain 1998;14:155-66
14. Merskey H, Bogduk N (eds): Classification of Chronic Pain: Descriptions of Chronic Pain Syndromes and Definitions of Pain Terms. Seattle, IASP Press, 1994, pp 40-3
15. Stanton-Hicks MD, Burton AW, Bruehl SP, et al: Complex regional pain syndromes: Updated interdisciplinary clinical pathway. Report of an expert panel. Pain Practice 2002;2:1-16
16. Oerlemans HM, Oostendorp RA, de Boo T, et al: Pain and reduced mobility in complex regional pain syndrome I: Outcome of a prospective randomised controlled clinical trial of adjuvant physical therapy versus occupational therapy. Pain 1999;83:77-83
17. Glynn CJ, Basedow RW, Walsh JA: Pain relief following post-ganglionic sympathetic blockade with I. V. guanethidine. Br J Anaesth 1981;53:1297-302
18. Kozin F, Ryan LM, Carerra GF, et al: The c dystrophy syndrome (RSDS): III. Scintigraphic studies, further evidence for the therapeutic efficacy of systemic corticosteroids, and proposed diagnostic criteria. Am J Med 1981;70:23-30
19. Bonelli S, Conoscente F, Movilia PG, et al: Regional intravenous guanethidine vs. stellate ganglion block in reflex sympathetic dystrophies: A randomized trial. Pain 1983;16:297-307
20. Poplawski ZJ, Wiley AM, Murray JF: Post-traumatic dystrophy of the extremities. J Bone Joint Surg 1983;65:642-55
21. Driessen JJ, van der Werken C, Nicolai JP, et al: Clinical effects of regional intravenous guanethidine (Ismelin) in reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1983;27:505-9
22. Davidoff G, Morey K, Amann M, et al: Pain measurement in reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. Pain 1988;32:27-34
23. Carlson LK, Watson HK: Treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy using the stress-loading program. J Hand Ther 1988;5:149-54
24. Oerlemans HM, Goris JA, de Boo T, et al: Do physical therapy and occupational therapy reduce the impairment percentage in reflex sympathetic dystrophy? Am J Phys Med Rehabil 1999;78:533-9
25. Birklein F, Riedl B, Sieweke N, et al: Neurological findings in complex regional pain syndromes: Analysis of 145 cases. Acta Neurol Scand 2000;101:262-9
26. Flor H, Fydrich T, Turk DC: Efficacy of multidisciplinary pain treatment centers: A meta-analytic review. Pain 1992;49:221-30
27. Guzmán J, Esmail R, Karjalainen K, et al: Multidisciplinary rehabilitation for chronic low back pain: Systematic review. BMJ 2001;322:1511-6
28. Turk DC, Dworkin RH, Allen RR, et al: Core outcome domains for chronic pain clinical trials: IMMPACT recommendations. Pain 2003;106:337-45
29. Revicki DA, Ehreth JL: Health-related quality-of-life assessment and planning for the pharmaceutical industry. Clin Ther 1997;19:1101-15
30. Oerlemans HM, Oostendorp RA, de Boo T, et al: Adjuvant physical therapy versus occupational therapy in patients with reflex sympathetic dystrophy/complex regional pain syndrome type I. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2000;81:49-56
31. Haddox JD, Van Alstine D: Pharmacologic therapy for reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Phys Med Rehabil 1996;10:297-309
32. Max MB: Thirteen consecutive well-designed randomized trials show that antidepressants reduce pain in diabetic retinopathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Pain Forum 1995;4:248-53
33. Max MB, Lynch SA, Muire J, et al: Effects of desipramine, amitriptyline, and fluoxetine on pain in diabetic neuropathy. N Engl J Med 1992;326:1250-6
34. McQuay HJ, Tramer M, Nye BA, et al: A systematic review of antidepressants in neuropathic pain. Pain 1996;68:217-27
35. Watson CP, Chipman M, Reed K, et al: Amitriptyline versus maprotiline in postherpetic neuralgia: A randomized, double-blind, crossover trial. Pain 1992;48:29-36
36. Sindrup SH, Jensen TS: Efficacy of pharmacological treatments of neuropathic pain: An update and effect related to mechanism of drug action. Pain 1999;83:389-400
37. Collins SL, Moore RA, McQuay HJ, et al: Antidepressants and anticonvulsants for diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia: A quantitative systematic review. J Pain Symptom Manage 2000;20:449-58
38. Ribbers GM, Geurts AC, Stam HJ, et al: Pharmacologic treatment of complex regional pain syndrome: I. Conceptual framework. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 2003;84:141-6
39. Kingery WS: A critical review of controlled clinical trials for peripheral neuropathic pain and complex regional pain syndromes. Pain 1997;73:123-39
40. Watson CP, Vernich L, Chipman M, et al: Nortriptyline versus amitriptyline in postherpetic neuralgia: A randomized trial. Neurology 1998;51:1166-71
41. Max MB, Kishore-Kumar R, Schafer SC, et al: Efficacy of desipramine in painful diabetic neuropathy: A placebo-controlled trial. Pain 1991;45:3-9
42. Sindrup SH, Bjerre U, Dejgaard A, et al: The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor citalopram relieves the symptoms of diabetic neuropathy. Clin Pharmacol Ther 1992;52:547-52
43. Sindrup SH, Gram LF, Brosen K, et al: The selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor paroxetine is effective in the treatment of diabetic neuropathy symptoms. Pain 1990;42:135-44
44. McQuay H, Carroll D, Jadad AR, et al: Anticonvulsant drugs for management of pain: Systematic review. BMJ 1995;311:1047-52
45. Wiffen P, Collins S, McQuay H, et al: Anticonvulsant drugs for acute and chronic pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev 2000;3:CD001133
46. Mellick GA, Mellicy LB, Mellick LB: Gabapentin in the management of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995;10:265-6
47. Castro-Lopes JM, Tavares I, Coimbra A: GABA decreases in the spinal cord dorsal horn after peripheral neurectomy. Brain Res 1993;620:287-91
48. Ibuki T, Hama AT, Wang XT, et al: Loss of GABA-immunoreactivity in the spinal dorsal horn of rats with peripheral nerve injury and promotion of recovery by adrenal medullary grafts. Neuroscience 1997;76:845-58
49. Rosenberg JM, Harrell C, Ristic H, et al: The effect of gabapentin on neuropathic pain. Clin J Pain 1997;13:251-5
50. Harden RN: Gabapentin: New tool in the treatment of neuropathic pain. Acta Neurol Scand Suppl 1999;173:43-7
51. Backonja M, Beydoun A, Edwards KR, et al: Gabapentin for the symptomatic treatment of painful neuropathy in patients with diabetes mellitus: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:1831-6
52. Rowbotham M, Harden N, Stacey B, et al: Gabapentin for the treatment of postherpetic neuralgia: Randomized controlled trial. JAMA 1998;280:1837-42
53. Mellick GA, Mellick LB: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy treated with gabapentin. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1997;78:98-105
54. Wheeler DS, Vaux KK, Tam DA: Use of gabapentin in the treatment of childhood reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Pediatr Neurol 2000;22:220-1
55. Chadda VS, Mathur MS: Double blind study of the effects of diphenylhydantoin sodium on diabetic neuropathy. J Assoc Physicians India 1978;26:403-6
56. + conductance and the threshold for repetitive neuronal firing. Brain Res 1992;597:92-8
57. Yaari Y, Devor M: Phenytoin suppresses spontaneous ectopic discharge in rat sciatic nerve neuromas. Neurosci Lett 1985;58:117-22
58. Burchiel KJ: Carbamazepine inhibits spontaneous activity in experimental neuromas. Exp Neurol 1988;102:249-53
59. Rull J, Quibrera R, Gonzalez-Millan H, et al: Symptomatic treatment of peripheral diabetic neuropathy with carbamazepine (Tegretol): Double-blind crossover study. Diabetologia 1969;5:215-9
60. Harke H, Gretenkort P, Ladleif HU, et al: The response of neuropathic pain and pain in complex regional pain syndrome I to carbamazepine and sustained-release morphine in patients pretreated with spinal cord stimulation: A double-blinded randomized study. Anesth Analg 2001;92:488-95
61. Beydoun A, Kobetz SA, Carrazana EJ: Efficacy of oxcarbazepine in the treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy. Clin J Pain 2004;20:174-8
62. Cohen M, Quintner J: Fibromyalgia syndrome, a problem of tautology. Lancet 1993;342:906-9
63. Gobel H, Stadler T: Treatment of post-herpes zoster pain with tramadol. Results of an open pilot study versus clomipramine with or without levomepromazine [in French]. Drugs 1997;53(suppl 2):34-9
64. Jacobson M, Sharma YR, Cotlier E, et al: Diabetic complications in lens and nerve and their prevention by sulindac or sorbinil: Two novel aldose reductase inhibitors. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 1983;24:1426-9
65. Parry GJ, Kozu H: Piroxicam may reduce the rate of progression of experimental diabetic neuropathy. Neurology 1990;40:1446-9
66. Stamford JA: Descending control of pain. Br J Anaesth 1995;75:217-27
67. Hashizume H, Rutkowski MD, Weinstein JN, et al: Central administration of methotrexate reduces mechanical allodynia in an animal model of radiculopathy/sciatica. Pain 2000;87:159-69
68. Dray A: Inflammatory mediators of pain. Br J Anaesth 1995;75:125-31
69. Geisslinger G, Yaksh TL: Spinal actions of cyclooxygenase isoenzyme inhibitors, in Devor M, Rowbotham MC, Wiesenfeld-Hallin Z (eds): Proceedings of the 9th World Congress on Pain: Progress in Pain Research and Management. Seattle, IASP Press, 2000, vol 16, pp 833-55
70. Rico H, Merono E, Gomez-Castresana F, et al: Scintigraphic evaluation of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Comparative study of the course of the disease under two therapeutic regimens. Clin Rheumatol 1987;6:233-7
71. Geurts AC, Visschers BA, van Limbeek J, et al: Systematic review of aetiology and treatment of post-stroke hand oedema and shoulder-hand syndrome. Scand J Rehabil Med 2000;32:4-10
72. Christensen K, Jensen EM, Noer I: The reflex dystrophy syndrome response to treatment with systemic corticosteroids. Acta Chir Scand 1982;148:653-5
73. Braus DF, Krauss JK, Strobel J: The shoulder-hand syndrome after stroke: A prospective clinical trial. Ann Neurol 1994;36:728-33
74. Forouzanfar T, Koke AJA, van Kleef M, et al: Treatment of complex regional pain syndrome type I. Eur J Pain 2002;6:105-22
75. Zuurmond WW, Langendijk PN, Bezemer PD, et al: Treatment of acute reflex sympathetic dystrophy with DMSO 50% in a fatty cream. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand 1996;40:364-7
76. Zollinger PE, Tuinebreijer WE, Kreis RW, et al: Effect of vitamin C on frequency of reflex sympathetic dystrophy in wrist fractures: A randomised trial. Lancet 1999;354:2025-8
77. Harden RN, Bruehl S: The use of opioids in treatment of chronic pain: An examination of the ongoing controversy. Point/Counterpoint. J Back Musculoskel Rehabil 1997;9:155-80
78. Byas-Smith MG, Max MB, Muir J, et al: Transdermal clonidine compared to placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy using a two-stage 'enriched enrollment' design. Pain 1995;60:267-74
79. Dellemijn PL, van Duijn H, Vanneste JA: Prolonged treatment with transdermal fentanyl in neuropathic pain. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998;16:220-9
80. Cherny NI, Thaler HT, Friedlander-Klar H, et al: Opioid responsiveness of cancer pain syndromes caused by neuropathic or nociceptive mechanisms: A combined analysis of controlled, single-dose studies. Neurology 1994;44:857-61
81. Rowbotham MC, Twilling L, Davies PS, et al: Opioid therapy for chronic peripheral and central neuropathic pain. N Engl J Med 2003;348:1223-32
82. Portenoy RK, Foley KM, Inturrisi CE: The nature of opioid responsiveness and its implications for neuropathic pain: New hypotheses derived from studies of opioid infusions. Pain 1990;43:273-86
83. Dellemijn P: Are opioids effective in relieving neuropathic pain? Pain 1999;80:453-62
84. Harden RN, Bruehl S, Siegler J, et al: Pain, psychological status, and functional recovery in chronic pain patients on daily opioids: Case comparison. J Back Musculoskel Rehabil 1997;9:101-8
85. Mao J, Price D, Caruso FS, et al: Oral administration of dextromethorphan prevents the development of morphine tolerance and dependence in rats. Pain 1996;67:361-8
86. Eide PK, Jorum E, Stubhaug A, et al: Relief of post-herpetic neuralgia with the N-methyl-D-aspartic acid receptor antagonist ketamine: Double-blind, cross-over comparison with morphine and placebo. Pain 1994;58:347-54
87. Mao J, Price DD, Mayer DJ, et al: Intrathecal MK-801 and local nerve anesthesia synergistically reduce nociceptive behaviors in rats with experimental peripheral mononeuropathy. Brain Res 1992;576:254-62
88. Nelson KA, Park KM, Robinovitz E, et al: High-dose oral dextromethorphan versus placebo in painful diabetic neuropathy and postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1997;48:1212-8
89. Qian J, Brown SD, Carlton SM: Systemic ketamine attenuates nociceptive behaviors in a rat model of peripheral neuropathy. Brain Res 1996;715:51-62
90. Tal M, Bennett GJ: Dextrorphan relieves neuropathic heat-evoked hyperalgesia. Neurosci Lett 1993;151:107-10
91. Mercadante S, Arcuri E, Tirelli W, et al: Analgesic effect of intravenous ketamine in cancer patients on morphine therapy: A randomized, controlled, double-blind, crossover, double-dose study. J Pain Symptom Manage 2000;20:246-52
92. Takahashi H, Miyazaki M, Nanbu T, et al: The NMDA-receptor antagonist ketamine abolishes neuropathic pain after epidural administration in a clinical case. Pain 1998;75:391-4
93. Md RE, Correll GE: Successful treatment of a nine-year case of complex regional pain syndrome type-I (reflex sympathetic dystrophy) with intravenous ketamine-infusion therapy in a warfarin-anticoagulated adult female patient. Pain Med 2002;3:147-55
94. Gammaitoni A, Gallagher RM, Welz-Bosna M: Topical ketamine gel: possible role in treating neuropathic pain. Pain Med 2000;1:97-100
95. Pud D, Eisenberg E, Spitzer A, et al: The NMDA receptor antagonist amantadine reduces surgical neuropathic pain in cancer patients: A double blind, randomized, placebo controlled trial. Pain 1998;75:349-54
96. Eisenberg E, Pud D: Can patients with chronic neuropathic pain be cured by acute administration of the NMDA receptor antagonist amantadine? Pain 1998;74:337-9
97. Tracey DJ, Cunningham JE, Romm MA: Peripheral hyperalgesia in experimental neuropathy: Mediation by alpha-2 adrenoreceptors on post-ganglionic sympathetic terminals. Pain 1995;60:317-327
98. Rauck RL, Eisenach JC, Jackson K, et al: Epidural clonidine treatment for refractory reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Anesthesiology 1993;79:1163-9
99. Pan HL, Chen SR, Eisenach JC: Intrathecal clonidine alleviates allodynia in neuropathic rats: Interaction with spinal muscarinic and nicotinic receptors. Anesthesiology 1999;90:509-14
100. Siddall PJ, Molloy AR, Walker S, et al: The efficacy of intrathecal morphine and clonidine in the treatment of pain after spinal cord injury. Anesth Analg 2000;91:1493-8
101. Davis KD, Treede RD, Raja SN, et al: Topical application of clonidine relieves hyperalgesia in patients with sympathetically maintained pain. Pain 1991;47:309-17
102. Watson CP, Babul N: Efficacy of oxycodone in neuropathic pain: A randomized trial in postherpetic neuralgia. Neurology 1998;50:1837-41
103. Muizelaar JP, Kleyer M, Hertogs IA, et al: Complex regional pain syndrome (reflex sympathetic dystrophy and causalgia): Management with the calcium channel blocker nifedipine and/or the alpha-sympathetic blocker phenoxy-benzamine in 59 patients. Clin Neurol Neurosurg 1997;99:26-30
104. Prough DS, McLeskey CH, Poehling GG, et al: Efficacy of oral nifedipine in the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Anesthesiology 1985;62:796-9
105. Bickerstaff DR, Kanis JA: The use of nasal calcitonin in the treatment of post-traumatic algodystrophy. Br J Rheumatol 1991;30:291-4
106. Gobelet C, Meier JL, Schaffner W, et al: Calcitonin and reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. Clin Rheumatol 1986;5:382-8
107. Gobelet C, Waldburger M, Meier JL: The effect of adding calcitonin to physical treatment on reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Pain 1992;48:171-5
108. Braga PC: Calcitonin and its antinociceptive activity: Animal and human investigations 1975-1992. Agents Actions 1994;41:121-31
109. Perez RS, Kwakkel G, Zuurmond WW, et al: Treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy (CRPS type 1): A research synthesis of 21 randomized clinical trials. J Pain Symptom Manage 2001;21:511-26
110. Cherot A, Amor B: Treatment of algodystrophy. A randomized study of 95 cases with 3 treatments: Calsyn 100, Visken, Grisefuline and Penthonium [in French]. Rev Rhum Mal Osteoartic 1983;50:95-7
111. Varenna M, Zucchi F, Ghiringhelli D, et al: Intravenous clodronate in the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome: A randomized, double blind, placebo controlled study. J Rheumatol 2000;27:1477-83
112. Adami S, Fossaluzza V, Gatti D, et al: Bisphosphonate therapy of reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome. Ann Rheum Dis 1997;56:201-4
113. Kubalek I, Fain O, Paries J, et al: Treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy with pamidronate: 29 cases. Rheumatology (Oxford) 2001;40:1394-7
114. Ghostine SY, Comair YG, Turner DM, et al: Phenoxybenzamine in the treatment of causalgia: Report of 40 cases. J Neurosurg 1984;60:1263-8
115. Raja SN, Turnquist JL, Meleka S, et al: Monitoring adequacy of alpha-adrenoceptor blockade following systemic phentolamine administration. Pain 1996;64:197-204
116. Viagra [full prescribing information]. New York, Pfizer, 2003
117. Kieburtz K, Simpson D, Yiannoutsos C, et al: A randomized trial of amitriptyline and mexiletine for painful neuropathy in HIV infection: AIDS Clinical Trial Group 242 Protocol Team. Neurology 1998;51:1682-8
118. Mao J, Chen LL: Systemic lidocaine for neuropathic pain relief. Pain 2000;87:7-17
119. Attal N, Brasseur L, Chauvin M, et al: Effects of single and repeated applications of a eutectic mixture of local anaesthetics (EMLA) cream on spontaneous and evoked pain in post-herpetic neuralgia. Pain 1999;81:203-9
120. Devers A, Galer BS: Topical lidocaine patch relieves a variety of neuropathic pain conditions: An open-label study. Clin J Pain 2000;16:205-8
121. Rowbotham MC, Davies PS, Verkempinck C, et al: Lidocaine patch: double-blind controlled study of a new treatment method for postherpetic neuralgia. Pain 1996;65:39-44
122. Watson CP, Tyler KL, Bickers DR, et al: A randomized vehicle-controlled trial of topical capsaicin in the treatment of post-herpetic neuralgia. Clin Ther 1993;15:510-26
123. Robbins WR, Staats PS, Levine J, et al: Treatment of intractable pain with topical large-dose capsaicin: Preliminary report. Anesth Analg 1998;86:579-83
124. Bernstein JE, Korman NJ, Bickers DR, et al: Topical capsaicin treatment of chronic postherpetic neuralgia. J Am Acad Dermatol 1989;21:265-70
125. Treatment of painful diabetic neuropathy with topical capsaicin: A multicenter, double-blind, vehicle-controlled study. The Capsaicin Study Group. Arch Intern Med 1991;151:2225-9
126. Peikert A, Hentrich A, Ochs G: Topical 0.025% capsaicin in chronic post-herpetic neuralgia: Efficacy, predictors of response and long-term course. J Neurol 1991;238:452-6
127. Simone DA, Ochoa J: Early and late effects of prolonged topical capsaicin on cutaneous sensibility and neurogenic vasodilatation in humans. Pain 1991;47:285-94
128. Stanton-Hicks M, Raj P, Racz G: Use of regional anesthetics for diagnosis of reflex sympathetic dystrophy and sympathetically maintained pain: A critical evaluation, in Janig W, Stanton-Hicks M (eds): Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy: A Reappraisal. Progress in Pain Research and Management. Seattle, IASP Press, 1996, pp 217-37
129. Verdugo RJ, Ochoa JL: 'Sympathetically maintained pain': I. Phentolamine block questions the concept. Neurology 1994;44:1003-10
130. Blanchard J, Ramamurthy S, Walsh N, et al: Intravenous regional sympatholysis: A double-blind comparison of guanethidine, reserpine, and normal saline. J Pain Symptom Manage 1990;5:357-61
131. Jadad AR, Carroll D, Glynn CJ, et al: Intravenous regional sympathetic blockade for pain relief in reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Systemic review and a randomized, double-blind crossover study. J Pain Symptom Manage 1995;10:13-20
132. Kettler RE, Abram SE: Intravenous regional droperidol in the management of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: A double-blind, placebo-controlled, crossover study. Anesthesiology 1988;69:933-6
133. Bounameaux HM, Hellemans H, Verhaeghe R: Ketanserin in chronic sympathetic dystrophy: An acute controlled trial. Clin Rheumatol 1984;3:556-7
134. Hanna MH, Peat SJ: Ketanserin in reflex sympathetic dystrophy: A double-blind placebo controlled cross-over trial. Pain 1989;38:145-50
135. Hord AH, Rooks MD, Stephens BO, et al: Intravenous regional bretylium and lidocaine for treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy: A randomized, double-blind study. Anesth Analg 1992;74:818-21
136. Ramamurthy S, Hoffman J: Intravenous regional guanethidine in the treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy/causalgia: A randomized, double-blind study. Guanethidine Study Group. Anesth Analg 1995;81:718-23
137. Geertzen JH, de Bruijn H, de Bruijn-Kofman AT, et al: Reflex sympathetic dystrophy: Early treatment and psychological aspects. Arch Phys Med Rehabil 1994;75:442-6
138. Glynn C, O'Sullivan K: A double-blind randomised comparison of the effects of epidural clonidine, lignocaine and the combination of clonidine and lignocaine in patients with chronic pain. Pain 1996;64:337-43
139. Gintautas J, Housny W, Kraynack BJ: Successful treatment of reflex sympathetic dystrophy by bier block with lidocaine and clonidine. Proc West Pharmacol Soc 1999;42:101
140. Becker WJ, Ablett DP, Harris CJ, et al: Long term treatment of intractable reflex sympathetic dystrophy with intrathecal morphine. Can J Neurol Sci 1995;22:153-9
141. Harden RN, Due TA, Williams TR, et al: Norepinephrine and epinephrine levels in affected versus unaffected limbs in sympathetically maintained pain. Clin J Pain 1994;10:324-30
142. Arner S: Intravenous phentolamine test: Diagnostic and prognostic use in reflex sympathetic dystrophy. Pain 1991;46:17-22
143. Raja SN, Treede RD, Davis KD, et al: Systemic alpha-adrenergic blockade with phentolamine: A diagnostic test for sympathetically maintained pain. Anesthesiology 1991;74:691-8
144. Verdugo RJ, Campero M, Ochoa JL: Phentolamine sympathetic block in painful polyneuropathies: II. Further questioning of the concept of 'sympathetically maintained pain.' Neurology 1994;44:1010-4
145. Hannington-Kieff JG: Intravenous regional sympathetic blocks, in Stanton-Hicks M, Janig W, Boas RA (eds): Reflex Sympathetic Dystrophy. Boston, Kluwer Academic Publishers, 1989, pp 113-24
146. Harden RN: Complex regional pain syndrome. Br J Anaesth 2001;87:99-106