Review article: Inaccurate, exceptional, one-sided or irrelevant? The debate about the alleged decline of social capital and civic engagement in western societies

British Journal of Political Science

Volumn 35, Issue 1, 2005, Pages 149-167

  Stolle, Dietlind ^a   Hooghe, Marc ^b  

^a MCGILL UNIVERSITY   (Canada)

^b UNIVERSITY OF LEUVEN   (Belgium)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 13444257905     PISSN: 00071234     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0007123405000074     Document Type: Review

References (156)

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3. Putnam, Bowling Alone, pp. 247ff.
4. Robert Bellah et al. Habits of the Heart (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985).
5. Robert Lane, The Loss of Happiness in Market Democracies (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2000).
6. Everett C. Ladd, 'The Data Just Don't Show Erosion of America's "Social Capital'", The Public Perspective (June 1996), 5-22.
7. Ronald Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1997).
8. Nan Lin, Social Capital: A Theory of Social Structure and Action (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001).
9. Robert Putnam, Making Democracy Work: Civic Traditions in Modern Italy (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1993).
10. David Laitin, 'Political Culture at 30', American Political Science Review, 89 (1995), 168-73.
11. In this article, do not wish to focus directly on acts of political participation: we only include items such as voter turnout and party membership if they have been used as an argument in the social capital and civic engagement debate. It is not the aim of this review article to offer a review of the burgeoning literature on party change, voter turnout and party membership. On these topics, we can refer to recent work by Peter Mair (Party System Change (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997)), Martin Wattenberg (Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002)) and Mark Franklin (The Dynamics of Voter Turnout in Established Democracies Since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)).
12. In this article, do not wish to focus directly on acts of political participation: we only include items such as voter turnout and party membership if they have been used as an argument in the social capital and civic engagement debate. It is not the aim of this review article to offer a review of the burgeoning literature on party change, voter turnout and party membership. On these topics, we can refer to recent work by Peter Mair (Party System Change (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997)), Martin Wattenberg (Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002)) and Mark Franklin (The Dynamics of Voter Turnout in Established Democracies Since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)).
13. In this article, do not wish to focus directly on acts of political participation: we only include items such as voter turnout and party membership if they have been used as an argument in the social capital and civic engagement debate. It is not the aim of this review article to offer a review of the burgeoning literature on party change, voter turnout and party membership. On these topics, we can refer to recent work by Peter Mair (Party System Change (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1997)), Martin Wattenberg (Where Have All the Voters Gone? (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 2002)) and Mark Franklin (The Dynamics of Voter Turnout in Established Democracies Since 1945 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2004)).
14. Amitai Etzioni, The Spirit of Community (New York: Crown, 1993); Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Michael Walzer, 'The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism', Political Theory, 18 (1990), 6-23.
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16. Amitai Etzioni, The Spirit of Community (New York: Crown, 1993); Charles Taylor, Sources of the Self (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1989); Michael Walzer, 'The Communitarian Critique of Liberalism', Political Theory, 18 (1990), 6-23.
17. Bellah et al., Habits of the Heart.
18. Robert Putnam, 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital', Journal of Democracy, 6 (1995), 65-78; Putnam, Bowling Alone; Robert Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux;
19. Robert Putnam, 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital', Journal of Democracy, 6 (1995), 65-78; Putnam, Bowling Alone; Robert Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux;
20. Robert Putnam, 'Bowling Alone: America's Declining Social Capital', Journal of Democracy, 6 (1995), 65-78; Putnam, Bowling Alone; Robert Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux;
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24. Putnam, Bowling Alone.
25. Gabriel Almond and Sidney Verba, The Civic Culture (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1963); Lawrence Harrison and Samuel Huntington, eds, Culture Matters: How Values Shape Human Progress (New York: Basic Books, 2000).
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28. It should be noted that Putnam and Goss have recently qualified this claim: 'Early research on social capital concentrated on formal associations for reasons of methodological convenience so it is worth emphasising here that associations constitute merely one form of social capital' (Robert Putnam and Kristin Goss, 'Introduction', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 3-19, at p. 10). Since 1993, however, quite some research has been focused on voluntary associations, drawing its inspiration directly from Making Democracy Work.
29. Mark Warren, Democracy and Association (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 2001).
30. Dietlind Stolle, 'Getting to Trust: An Analysis of the Importance of Institutions, Families, Personal Experiences and Group Membership', in Paul Dekker and Eric Uslaner, eds, Politics in Everyday Life: Social Capital and Participation (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 118-33; Eric Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Marc Hooghe and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital: Civil Society and Institutions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Palgrave, 2003).
31. Dietlind Stolle, 'Getting to Trust: An Analysis of the Importance of Institutions, Families, Personal Experiences and Group Membership', in Paul Dekker and Eric Uslaner, eds, Politics in Everyday Life: Social Capital and Participation (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 118-33; Eric Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Marc Hooghe and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital: Civil Society and Institutions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Palgrave, 2003).
32. Dietlind Stolle, 'Getting to Trust: An Analysis of the Importance of Institutions, Families, Personal Experiences and Group Membership', in Paul Dekker and Eric Uslaner, eds, Politics in Everyday Life: Social Capital and Participation (London: Routledge, 2001), pp. 118-33; Eric Uslaner, The Moral Foundations of Trust (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Marc Hooghe and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital: Civil Society and Institutions in Comparative Perspective (New York: Palgrave, 2003).
33. Seymour M. Lipset and William Schneider, The Confidence Gap (New York: Free Press, 1983); Joseph Nye, Philip Zelikow and David King, eds, Why People Don't Trust Government (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); M. Kent Jennings, 'Political Trust and the Roots of Devolution', in Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, eds, Trust and Governance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), pp. 218-44; Pharr and Putnam, eds., Disaffected Democracies.
34. Seymour M. Lipset and William Schneider, The Confidence Gap (New York: Free Press, 1983); Joseph Nye, Philip Zelikow and David King, eds, Why People Don't Trust Government (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); M. Kent Jennings, 'Political Trust and the Roots of Devolution', in Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, eds, Trust and Governance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), pp. 218-44; Pharr and Putnam, eds., Disaffected Democracies.
35. Seymour M. Lipset and William Schneider, The Confidence Gap (New York: Free Press, 1983); Joseph Nye, Philip Zelikow and David King, eds, Why People Don't Trust Government (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); M. Kent Jennings, 'Political Trust and the Roots of Devolution', in Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, eds, Trust and Governance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), pp. 218-44; Pharr and Putnam, eds., Disaffected Democracies.
36. Seymour M. Lipset and William Schneider, The Confidence Gap (New York: Free Press, 1983); Joseph Nye, Philip Zelikow and David King, eds, Why People Don't Trust Government (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1997); M. Kent Jennings, 'Political Trust and the Roots of Devolution', in Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, eds, Trust and Governance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998), pp. 218-44; Pharr and Putnam, eds., Disaffected Democracies.
37. Peter Mair and Ingrid van Biezen, 'Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980-2000', Party Politics, 1 (2001), 5-22.
38. Marc Hooghe, Dietlind Stolle and Patrick Stouthuysen, 'Head Start in Politics: The Recruitment Function of Youth Organizations of Political Parties in Belgium (Flanders)', Party Politics, 10 (2004), 193-212.
39. Martin Wattenberg, The Decline of American Political Parties (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); Hermann Schmitt and Sören Holmberg, 'Political Parties in Decline?' in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 95-133; Russell Dalton and Martin Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
40. Martin Wattenberg, The Decline of American Political Parties (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); Hermann Schmitt and Sören Holmberg, 'Political Parties in Decline?' in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 95-133; Russell Dalton and Martin Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
41. Martin Wattenberg, The Decline of American Political Parties (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1996); Hermann Schmitt and Sören Holmberg, 'Political Parties in Decline?' in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 95-133; Russell Dalton and Martin Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000).
42. Norman Nie, Sidney Verba and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Ruy Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1992) ; Robert Jackman and Ross Miller, 'Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies during the 1980s', Comparative Political Studies, 27 (1995), 467-92; Arend Lijphart, 'Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 1-14; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
43. Norman Nie, Sidney Verba and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Ruy Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1992) ; Robert Jackman and Ross Miller, 'Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies during the 1980s', Comparative Political Studies, 27 (1995), 467-92; Arend Lijphart, 'Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 1-14; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
44. Norman Nie, Sidney Verba and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Ruy Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1992) ; Robert Jackman and Ross Miller, 'Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies during the 1980s', Comparative Political Studies, 27 (1995), 467-92; Arend Lijphart, 'Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 1-14; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
45. Norman Nie, Sidney Verba and John Petrocik, The Changing American Voter (Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1979); Ruy Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1992) ; Robert Jackman and Ross Miller, 'Voter Turnout in the Industrial Democracies during the 1980s', Comparative Political Studies, 27 (1995), 467-92; Arend Lijphart, 'Unequal Participation: Democracy's Unresolved Dilemma', American Political Science Review, 91 (1997), 1-14; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
46. Michael Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?' The American Prospect (March, 1996), 17-28; Everett C. Ladd, The Lodd Report (New York: The Free Press, 1999); Pamela Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States? ' American Journal of Sociology, 105 (1999), 88-127; Robert Wuthnow, 'The United States: Bridging the Privileged and the Marginalized?' in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 59-101.
47. Michael Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?' The American Prospect (March, 1996), 17-28; Everett C. Ladd, The Lodd Report (New York: The Free Press, 1999); Pamela Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States? ' American Journal of Sociology, 105 (1999), 88-127; Robert Wuthnow, 'The United States: Bridging the Privileged and the Marginalized?' in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 59-101.
48. Michael Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?' The American Prospect (March, 1996), 17-28; Everett C. Ladd, The Lodd Report (New York: The Free Press, 1999); Pamela Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States? ' American Journal of Sociology, 105 (1999), 88-127; Robert Wuthnow, 'The United States: Bridging the Privileged and the Marginalized?' in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 59-101.
49. Michael Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?' The American Prospect (March, 1996), 17-28; Everett C. Ladd, The Lodd Report (New York: The Free Press, 1999); Pamela Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States? ' American Journal of Sociology, 105 (1999), 88-127; Robert Wuthnow, 'The United States: Bridging the Privileged and the Marginalized?' in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 59-101.
50. Peter Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29 (1999), 417-61; Nonna Mayer, 'Democracy in France: Do Associations Matter?' in Hooghe and Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital, pp. 43-66; Pippa Norris, Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Oscar Gabriel et al., Sozialkapital und Demokratie (Vienna: Universitätsverlag, 2002);
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52. Peter Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29 (1999), 417-61; Nonna Mayer, 'Democracy in France: Do Associations Matter?' in Hooghe and Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital, pp. 43-66; Pippa Norris, Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Oscar Gabriel et al., Sozialkapital und Demokratie (Vienna: Universitätsverlag, 2002);
53. Peter Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain', British Journal of Political Science, 29 (1999), 417-61; Nonna Mayer, 'Democracy in France: Do Associations Matter?' in Hooghe and Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital, pp. 43-66; Pippa Norris, Democratic Phoenix: Reinventing Political Activism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002); Oscar Gabriel et al., Sozialkapital und Demokratie (Vienna: Universitätsverlag, 2002);
54. Lars Torpe, 'Social Capital in Denmark: A Deviant Case?' Scandinavian Political Studies, 26 (2003), 27-48.
55. Ulrich Beck, The Reinvention of Politics (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997); Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Nina Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
56. Ulrich Beck, The Reinvention of Politics (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997); Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Nina Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
57. Ulrich Beck, The Reinvention of Politics (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997); Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Nina Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
58. Ulrich Beck, The Reinvention of Politics (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1997); Paul Lichterman, The Search for Political Community (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996); Manuel Castells, The Rise of the Network Society (Oxford: Blackwell, 1997); Nina Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998).
59. Ronald Inglehart and Pippa Norris, Rising Tide: Gender Equality and Cultural Change around the World (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003).
60. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Ronald Inglehart and Wayne Baker, 'Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values', American Sociological Review, 65 (2000), 19-51.
61. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Ronald Inglehart and Wayne Baker, 'Modernization, Cultural Change, and the Persistence of Traditional Values', American Sociological Review, 65 (2000), 19-51.
62. Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?'; Ladd, The Ladd Report; Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?'; Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin, 'The Myth of the Vanishing Voter', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 963-74; Wuthnow, The United States'.
63. Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?'; Ladd, The Ladd Report; Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?'; Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin, 'The Myth of the Vanishing Voter', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 963-74; Wuthnow, The United States'.
64. Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?'; Ladd, The Ladd Report; Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?'; Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin, 'The Myth of the Vanishing Voter', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 963-74; Wuthnow, The United States'.
65. Schudson, 'What if Civic Life Didn't Die?'; Ladd, The Ladd Report; Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?'; Michael McDonald and Samuel Popkin, 'The Myth of the Vanishing Voter', American Political Science Review, 95 (2001), 963-74; Wuthnow, The United States'.
66. Ladd, The Ladd Report.
67. Teixeira, The Disappearing American Voter.
68. McDonald and Popkin, 'The Myth of the Vanishing Voter,' p. 963.
69. Putnam, Bowling Alone. pp. 35, 254, 257.
70. Norman Nie, Jane Junn and Keith Stehlik-Barry, Education and Democratic Citizenship in America (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1996), pp. 6, 100.
71. This argument, too, however, only leads to new questions. While it might be true that there is a 'natural limit' to the number of leading jobs within associational life, the same does not hold for the rank-and-file members. While the number of school board directors in a community might be limited, the number of bowling leagues in principle can grow idefinitely. So while a rise in aggregate education levels will not necessarily boost all forms of participation, it should have a positive effect on at least some of them.
72. Wim De Heer, 'International Response Trends: Results of an International Survey', Journal of Official Statistics, 15 (1999), 129-42.
73. NES (2003). http://www.umich.edu/~nes/studyres/datainfo/dataqual.htm
74. Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?' p. 121; Norris, Democratic Phoenix; Mayer, 'Democracy in France: Do Associations Matter?'
75. Paxton, 'Is Social Capital Declining in the United States?' p. 121; Norris, Democratic Phoenix; Mayer, 'Democracy in France: Do Associations Matter?'
76. Nye, Zelikow and King, eds, Why People Don't Trust Government; Valerie Braithwaite and Margaret Levi, eds, Trust and Governance (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1998).
77. Putnam and Goss, 'Introduction', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, p. 11.
78. Joep de Hart and Paul Dekker, 'A Tale of Two Cities: Local Patterns of Social Capital', in Hooghe and Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital, pp. 153-70.
79. Dietlind Stolle and Marc Hooghe, 'Conflicting Approaches to the Study of Social Capital: Competing Explanations for Causes and Effects of Social Capital', Ethical Perspectives, 10 (2003), 22-45.
80. Hooghe, Marc, 'Why Should We Be Bowling Alone? Cross-Sectional Results from a Belgian Survey on Civic Participation', Voluntas, 14 (2003), 41-59.
81. Mair and van Biezen, 'Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980-2000'; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, 'When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995', European Sociological Review, 15 (1999), 135-58; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
82. Mair and van Biezen, 'Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980-2000'; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, 'When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995', European Sociological Review, 15 (1999), 135-58; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
83. Mair and van Biezen, 'Party Membership in Twenty European Democracies, 1980-2000'; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, 'When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995', European Sociological Review, 15 (1999), 135-58; Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux.
84. Dalton and Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans; Mark Gray and Miki Caul, 'Declining Voter Turnout in Advanced Democracies', Comparative Political Studies, 33 (2000), 1091-121; Peter Mair, 'In the Aggregate: Mass Electoral Behaviour in Western Europe, 1950-2000', in Hans Keman, ed., Comparative Democratic Politics (London: Sage, 2002), pp. 122-41.
85. Dalton and Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans; Mark Gray and Miki Caul, 'Declining Voter Turnout in Advanced Democracies', Comparative Political Studies, 33 (2000), 1091-121; Peter Mair, 'In the Aggregate: Mass Electoral Behaviour in Western Europe, 1950-2000', in Hans Keman, ed., Comparative Democratic Politics (London: Sage, 2002), pp. 122-41.
86. Dalton and Wattenberg, eds, Parties without Partisans; Mark Gray and Miki Caul, 'Declining Voter Turnout in Advanced Democracies', Comparative Political Studies, 33 (2000), 1091-121; Peter Mair, 'In the Aggregate: Mass Electoral Behaviour in Western Europe, 1950-2000', in Hans Keman, ed., Comparative Democratic Politics (London: Sage, 2002), pp. 122-41.
87. Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
88. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Ola Listhaug, 'The Dynamics of Trust in Politicians', in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 261-97;
89. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Ola Listhaug, 'The Dynamics of Trust in Politicians', in Hans-Dieter Klingemann and Dieter Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), pp. 261-97;
90. Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens: Global Support for Democratic Government (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999).
91. Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State.
92. Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'Mapping Political Support in the 1990s', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens, pp. 31-56.
93. Richard Topf, 'Beyond Electoral Participation', in Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State, pp. 52-91; Paul Dekker and Andries van den Broek, 'Civil Society in Comparative Perspective: Involvement in Voluntary Associations in North America and Western Europe', Voluntas, 9 (1998), 11-38; Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain'; Robert Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 393-415; Marc Hooghe, 'Value Congruence and Convergence within Voluntary Associations', Political Behavior, 25 (2003), 151-75.
94. Richard Topf, 'Beyond Electoral Participation', in Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State, pp. 52-91; Paul Dekker and Andries van den Broek, 'Civil Society in Comparative Perspective: Involvement in Voluntary Associations in North America and Western Europe', Voluntas, 9 (1998), 11-38; Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain'; Robert Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 393-415; Marc Hooghe, 'Value Congruence and Convergence within Voluntary Associations', Political Behavior, 25 (2003), 151-75.
95. Richard Topf, 'Beyond Electoral Participation', in Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State, pp. 52-91; Paul Dekker and Andries van den Broek, 'Civil Society in Comparative Perspective: Involvement in Voluntary Associations in North America and Western Europe', Voluntas, 9 (1998), 11-38; Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain'; Robert Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 393-415; Marc Hooghe, 'Value Congruence and Convergence within Voluntary Associations', Political Behavior, 25 (2003), 151-75.
96. Richard Topf, 'Beyond Electoral Participation', in Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State, pp. 52-91; Paul Dekker and Andries van den Broek, 'Civil Society in Comparative Perspective: Involvement in Voluntary Associations in North America and Western Europe', Voluntas, 9 (1998), 11-38; Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain'; Robert Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 393-415; Marc Hooghe, 'Value Congruence and Convergence within Voluntary Associations', Political Behavior, 25 (2003), 151-75.
97. Richard Topf, 'Beyond Electoral Participation', in Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State, pp. 52-91; Paul Dekker and Andries van den Broek, 'Civil Society in Comparative Perspective: Involvement in Voluntary Associations in North America and Western Europe', Voluntas, 9 (1998), 11-38; Hall, 'Social Capital in Britain'; Robert Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 393-415; Marc Hooghe, 'Value Congruence and Convergence within Voluntary Associations', Political Behavior, 25 (2003), 151-75.
98. Klingemann and Fuchs, eds, Citizens and the State.
99. Gabriel et al., Sozialkapital und Demokratie.
100. Putnam, 'Conclusion', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, p. 410.
101. Paul Dekker and Joep de Hart, 'Het sociaal kapitaal van de Nederlandse kiezer', in Marc Hooghe, ed., Sociaal kapitaal en democratie (Leuven: Acco, 2000), pp. 83-112; Jacques Thomassen, Cees Aarts and Henk van der Kolk, eds, Politieke veranderingen in Nederland, 1971-1998 (The Hague: SDU, 2000).
102. Paul Dekker and Joep de Hart, 'Het sociaal kapitaal van de Nederlandse kiezer', in Marc Hooghe, ed., Sociaal kapitaal en democratie (Leuven: Acco, 2000), pp. 83-112; Jacques Thomassen, Cees Aarts and Henk van der Kolk, eds, Politieke veranderingen in Nederland, 1971-1998 (The Hague: SDU, 2000).
103. André Blais, Elisabeth Gidengil, Richard Nadeau and Neu Nevitte, 'Generational Change and the Decline of Political Participation: The Case of Voter Turnout in Canada' (paper presented at the McGill Workshop 'Citizenship on Trial: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Political Socialization of Adolescents', June 2002).
104. Eric Plutzer, 'Becoming a Habitual Voter: Inertia, Resources, and Growth in Young Adulthood', American Political Science Review, 96 (2002), 41-56.
105. Franklin, The Dynamics of Voter Turnout in Established Democracies since 1945.
106. M. Kent Jennings and Laura Stoker, 'Generational Change, Life Cycle Processes and Social Capital' (paper presented at the McGill Workshop 'Citizenship on Trial: Interdisciplinary Perspectives on Political Socialization of Adolescents', June 2002).
107. Peter Gundelach, 'Social Transformation and New Forms of Voluntary Associations', Social Science Information, 23 (1984), 1049-81.
108. Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics; Lichterman, The Search for Political Community.
109. Lesley Hustinx and Frans Lammertyn, 'Collective and Reflexive Styles of Volunteering: A Sociological Modernization Perspective', Voluntas, 14 (2003), 167-87.
110. Jeff Goodwin, James Jasper and Francesca Polletta, eds, Passionate Politics: Emotions and Social Movements (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2002).
111. Ladd, The Ladd Report, pp. 31-43; Susan Crawford and Peggy Levitt, 'Social Change and Civic Engagement: the Case of the PTA', in Theda Skocpol and Morris Fiorina, eds, Civic Engagement in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1999), pp. 249-96.
112. Ladd, The Ladd Report, pp. 31-43; Susan Crawford and Peggy Levitt, 'Social Change and Civic Engagement: the Case of the PTA', in Theda Skocpol and Morris Fiorina, eds, Civic Engagement in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1999), pp. 249-96.
113. Crawford and Levitt, 'Social Change and Civic Engagement', p. 283.
114. Robert Wuthnow, Loose Connections: Joining Together in America's Fragmented Communities (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1998).
115. Castells, The Rise of the Network Society.
116. W. Lance Bennett, 'Branded Political Communication: Lifestyle Politics, Logo Campaigns, and the Rise of Global Citizenship', in Michelle Micheletti, Andreas Føllesdal and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Politics, Products and Markets (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 2004), pp. 101-26; Margaret Levi and David Olson, 'The Battle in Seattle', Politics and Society, 28 (2000), 309-29.
117. W. Lance Bennett, 'Branded Political Communication: Lifestyle Politics, Logo Campaigns, and the Rise of Global Citizenship', in Michelle Micheletti, Andreas Føllesdal and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Politics, Products and Markets (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 2004), pp. 101-26; Margaret Levi and David Olson, 'The Battle in Seattle', Politics and Society, 28 (2000), 309-29.
118. W. Lance Bennett, 'The UnCivic Culture: Communication, Identity, and the Rise of Lifestyle Politics', Political Science and Politics, 31 (1998), 741-61; Bennett, 'Branded Political Communication: Lifestyle Politics, Logo Campaigns, and the Rise of Global Citizenship'; Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics.
119. W. Lance Bennett, 'The UnCivic Culture: Communication, Identity, and the Rise of Lifestyle Politics', Political Science and Politics, 31 (1998), 741-61; Bennett, 'Branded Political Communication: Lifestyle Politics, Logo Campaigns, and the Rise of Global Citizenship'; Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics.
120. Beck, The Reinvention of Politics.
121. Michelle Micheletti, 'Why More Women? Issues of Gender and Political Consumerism', in Michelle Micheletti, Andreas Føllesdal and Dietlind Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets (New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Press, 2004), pp. 245-64.
122. Eliasoph, Avoiding Politics.
123. Marc Hooghe and Gita Deneckere, 'La Marche Blanche en Belgique (octobre 1996), une mouvement de masse spectaculaire mais éphémère', Le Mouvement Social, 202 (2003), 153-64.
124. Dag Wollebæk and Per Selle, 'The Importance of Passive Membership for Social Capital Formation', in Hooghe and Stolle, eds, Generating Social Capital, pp. 67-88.
125. Theda Skocpol, Diminished Democracy: From Membership to Management in American Civic Life (Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2003).
126. Jonah Peretti and Michelle Micheletti, 'The Nike Sweatshop Email: Political Consumerism, Internet, and Culture Jamming', in Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets, pp. 127-44.
127. Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets.
128. Martha Ackelsberg, 'Broadening the Study of Women's Participation', in Susan Carroll, ed., Women and American Politics (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003), pp. 214-36.
129. Paul Dekker and Ric Uslaner, eds, Social Capital and Everyday Life (London: Routledge, 2001).
130. Diana Mutz and Jeffrey Mondak, 'Democracy at Work: Contributions of the Workplace Toward a Public Sphere' (paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Midwest Political Science Association, Chicago, 1998).
131. Kenneth Newton, 'Social Capital and Democracy in Modern Europe', in Jan van Deth et al., eds, Social Capital and European Democracy (London: Routledge 1999), pp. 2-24.
132. Vivien Lowndes, 'Women and Social Capital: A Comment on Hall's "Social Capital in Britain"', British Journal of Political Science, 30 (2000), 533-7.
133. Myra M. Ferree and Patricia Martin, eds, Feminist Organizations (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1995).
134. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Chris Welzel, Ronald Inglehart and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'The Theory of Human Development', European Journal of Political Research, 42 (2003), 341-80; Norris, ed., Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
135. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Chris Welzel, Ronald Inglehart and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'The Theory of Human Development', European Journal of Political Research, 42 (2003), 341-80; Norris, ed., Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
136. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Chris Welzel, Ronald Inglehart and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'The Theory of Human Development', European Journal of Political Research, 42 (2003), 341-80; Norris, ed., Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
137. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization; Chris Welzel, Ronald Inglehart and Hans-Dieter Klingemann, 'The Theory of Human Development', European Journal of Political Research, 42 (2003), 341-80; Norris, ed., Critical Citizens; Norris, Democratic Phoenix.
138. Ronald Inglehart, 'Postmodernization Erodes Respect for Authority, but Increases Support for Democracy', in Pippa Norris, ed., Critical Citizens (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999), pp. 236-56.
139. Michael Schudson, The Good Citizen (New York: The Free Press, 1998).
140. Theda Skocpol, 'How Americans Became Civic', in Theda Skocpol and Morris Fiorina, eds, Civic Engagement in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1999), pp. 27-80; Skocpol, Diminished Democracy.
141. Theda Skocpol, 'How Americans Became Civic', in Theda Skocpol and Morris Fiorina, eds, Civic Engagement in American Democracy (Washington, D.C.: The Brookings Institution, 1999), pp. 27-80; Skocpol, Diminished Democracy.
142. To some extent, this leads to a new problem. If young age groups prove to be less involved than their counterparts were a few decades ago, this does not necessarily mean they will remain less engaged throughout their life cycle. Because of extended education, and a higher average age for first marriage and parenthood, we have to take the possibility into account that young people simply start later with their engagement careers. We would call this phenomenon delayed life-cycle effects.
143. Claus Offe and Susanne Fuchs, 'A Decline of Social Capital? The German Case', in Putnam, ed., Democracies in Flux, pp. 189-243, p. 243.
144. However, see Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, Politisk forbrug og politiske forbrugere. Globalisering og politik i hverdagslivet (Aarhus: Magtudredningen, 2001); Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, 'Who are These Political Consumers Anyway? Survey Evidence from Denmark', in Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets, pp. 203-22; Dietlind Stolle, Marc Hooghe and Michelle Micheletti, 'Political Consumerism - A New Phenomenon of Political Participation? An Exploratory Study in Canada, Belgium and Sweden' (paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions in Edinburgh, 2003).
145. However, see Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, Politisk forbrug og politiske forbrugere. Globalisering og politik i hverdagslivet (Aarhus: Magtudredningen, 2001); Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, 'Who are These Political Consumers Anyway? Survey Evidence from Denmark', in Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets, pp. 203-22; Dietlind Stolle, Marc Hooghe and Michelle Micheletti, 'Political Consumerism - A New Phenomenon of Political Participation? An Exploratory Study in Canada, Belgium and Sweden' (paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions in Edinburgh, 2003).
146. However, see Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, Politisk forbrug og politiske forbrugere. Globalisering og politik i hverdagslivet (Aarhus: Magtudredningen, 2001); Jørgen Goul Andersen and Mette Tobiasen, 'Who are These Political Consumers Anyway? Survey Evidence from Denmark', in Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets, pp. 203-22; Dietlind Stolle, Marc Hooghe and Michelle Micheletti, 'Political Consumerism - A New Phenomenon of Political Participation? An Exploratory Study in Canada, Belgium and Sweden' (paper presented at the ECPR Joint Sessions in Edinburgh, 2003).
147. Ulrich Beck and Elisabeth Beck-Gernsheim, Individualization: Institutionalized Individualism and its Social and Political Consequences (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 2002), p. 19.
148. Barry Adam, Jan Willem Duyvendak and André Krouwel, eds, The Global Emergence of Gay and Lesbian Politics (Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1999).
149. However, we should also add here that so-called private motivations might influence voting or the participation in political campaigns, etc. The discussion shows that conventional public-private divides might no longer be important markers for political engagement.
150. Inglehart, Modernization and Postmodernization.
151. Michael Crozier, Samuel Huntington and Joji Watanuki, The Crisis of Democracy (New York: New York University Press, 1975).
152. Norris, ed., Critical Citizens.
153. Frank Baumgartner and Beth Leech, Basic Interests (Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1998).
154. Peter Singer, One World: The Ethics of Globalization (New Haven, Conn.: Yale University Press, 2002);
155. Margaret Levi and April Linton, 'Fair Trade: A Cup at a Time?' Politics and Society, 31 (2003), 407-32.
156. Micheletti, Føllesdal and Stolle, eds, Politics, Products, and Markets.