The Evolution of the Human Self: Tracing the Natural History of Self-Awareness

Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour

Volumn 33, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 365-404

  Leary, Mark R ^a   Buttermore, Nicole R ^b  

^a WAKE FOREST UNIVERSITY   (United States)

^b The College of William and Mary   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347588408     PISSN: 00218308     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1046/j.1468-5914.2003.00223.x     Document Type: Review

References (154)

1. AIELLO, L. (1996). Hominine preadaptations for language and cognition. In P. Mellars & K. Gibson (eds). Modelling the early human mind (pp. 89-99). Cambridge: MCDonald Institute Monographs.
2. ALEXANDER, R.D. (1974). The evolution of social behavior. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics, 5, 324-382.
3. ANDERSON, J.R. (1994). The monkey in the mirror: A strange conspecific. In S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell & M.L. Boccia (eds). Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 315-329). New York: Cambridge University Press.
4. BARKLEY, R.A. (2001). The executive functions and self-regulation: An evolutionary neuro-psychological perspective. Neuropsychology Review, 11, 1029.
5. BARKOW, J.H. (1978). Social norms, the self, and sociobiology: Building on the ideas of A. I. Hallowell. Current Anthropology, 19, 99-118.
6. BAUMEISTER, R.F. (1998). The self. In D.T. Gilbert, S.T. Fiske & G. Lindzey (eds). Handbook of social psychology (4th ed., pp. 680-740). New York: MCGraw-Hill.
7. BAUMEISTER, R.F. (ed.) (1999). The self in social psychology. Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
8. BEDMARIK, R.G. (2003). A figurine from the African Acheulian. Current Anthropology, 44, 405-413.
9. BICKERTON, D. (1990). Language and species. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
10. BOESCH, C., & BOESCH, H. (1984). Mental map in chimpanzee: An analysis of hammer transports for nut cracking. Primates, 25, 160-170.
11. BORDES, F. (1968). The old stone age (trans. J.E. Anderson). New York: MCGraw-Hill.
12. BOYER, P. (2000). Evolution of the modern mind and the origins of culture: Religious concepts as a limiting-case. In P. Carruthers & A. Chamberlin (eds). Evolution and the human mind: Modularity, language, and meta-cognition (pp. 93-112). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
13. BROSWIMMER, F.J. (2002). Ecocide: A short history of the mass extinction of species. London: Pluto.
14. BROWN, J.D. (1999). The self. New York: MCGraw-Hill.
15. BUSS, A.H. (1980). Self-consciousness and social anxiety. San Francisco: W.H. Freeman.
16. BUSS, D.M. (1995). Evolutionary psychology: A new paradigm for psychological science. Psychological Inquiry, 6, 1-49.
17. BUTTERWORTH, G. (1999). A developmental-ecological perspective on Strawson's "The Self." In S. Gallagher & J. Shear (eds). Models of the self (pp. 203-211). Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic.
18. BYRNE, R.W. (2000). Evolution of primate cognition. Cognitive Science, 24, 543-570.
19. CAMPBELL, B.G. (1992). Humankind emerging (6th ed.). New York: Harper Collins.
20. CAMPBELL, B.G. (1996). An outline of human phylogeny. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 31-52). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
21. CANN, R.L., STONEKING, M., & WILSON, A.C. (1987). Mitochondrial DNA and human evolution. Nature, 325, 31-36.
22. CARRUTHERS, P. (1998). Thinking in language? Evolution and a modularist possibility. In P. Carruthers & J. Boucher (eds). Language and thought (pp. 94-119). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
23. CHAUVET, J., DESCHAMPS, E.B., HILLAIRE, C. (1996). The dawn of art: The Chavet Cave. The Oldest Known Paintings in the World. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
24. CONKEY, M.W. (1996). A history of the interpretation of European "palaeolithic art:" Magic, mythogram, and metaphors for modernity. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 288-350). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
25. COSMIDES, L., & TOOBY, J. (1994). Origins of domain specificity: The evolution of functional organization. In L.A. Hirschfeld & S.A. Gelman (eds). Mapping the mind: Domain specificity in cognition and culture (pp. 85-117). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
26. CROOK, J.H. (1980). The evolution of human consciousness. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
27. CROOK, J.H., & GARTLAN, J.S. (1966). Evolution of primate societies. Nature, 210, 1200-1203.
28. DEACON, T.W. (1989). The neural circuitry underlying primate calls and human language. Human Evolution, 4, 367-401.
29. dE WAAL, F.B.M. (1982). Chimpanzee politics: Power and sex among apes. New York: Harper and Row.
30. dE WAAL, F.B.M. (1986). Deception in the natural communication of chimpanzees. In R.W. Mitchell & N.S. Thompson (eds). Deception: Perspectives on human and nonhuman deceit (pp. 221-244). Albany: State University of New York Press.
31. dE WAAL, F., & LANTING, F. (1997). Bonobo: The forgotten ape. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
32. DIAMOND, J. (1992). The third chimpanzee. New York: HarperCollins.
33. DICKSON, D.B. (1990). The dawn of belief. Tucson: University of Arizona Press.
34. DONALD, M. (1991). Origins of the modem mind. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
35. ECCLES, J.C. (1989). Evolution of the brain: Creation of the self. London: Routledge.
36. FALK, D. (1987). Hominid paleoneurology. Annual Review of Anthropology, 16, 13-30.
37. FEINBERG, T.E. (2001). Altered egos: How the brain creates the self. London: Oxford University Press.
38. FLANAGAN, O., HARDCASTLE, V.G., & NAHMIAS, E. (2002). Is human intelligence an adaptation? Cautionary observations from the philosophy of biology. In R.J. Sternberg & J.C.Kaufman (eds). The evolution of intelligence (pp. 199-222). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
39. GALLUP, G.G., Jr. (1970). Chimpanzees: Self-recognition. Science, 167, 86-87.
40. GALLUP, G.G., Jr. (1977). Self-recognition in primates. American Psychologist, 32, 329-338.
41. GALLUP, G.G., Jr. (1982). Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in primates. American Journal of Primatology, 2, 237-248.
42. GALLUP, G.G., Jr. (1997). On the rise and fall of self-conception in primates. In J.G. Snodgrass & R.L. Thompson (eds). The self across psychology (pp. 73-82). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
43. GALLUP, G.G., Jr., & SUAREZ, S.D. (1986). Self-awareness and the emergence of mind in humans and other primates. In J. Suls & A. Greenwald (eds). Psychological perspectives on the self (Vol. 3, pp. 3-26). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
44. GAMBLE, C. (1999). The Palaeolithic societies of Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
45. GEARY, D.C., & HUFFMAN, K.J. (2002). Brain and cognitive function: Forms of modularity and functions of mind. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 667-698.
46. GIBSON, K. (1996). The ontogeny of evolution of the brain, cognition, and language. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 407-431). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
47. GORE, R. (2002, August). New find. National Geographic, 202, 2-6.
48. GROVES, C.P. (1989). A theory of human and primate evolution. Oxford, UK: Clarendon Press.
49. HADINGHAM, E. (1979). Secrets of the ice age: The world of the cave artists. New York: Walker and Company.
50. HAILE-SELASSIE, Y. (2001, July 12). Late Miocene hominids in the Middle Awash, Ethiopia. Nature, 412, 178-181.
51. HALLOWELL, A.I. (1955). Culture and experience. New York: Shocken.
52. HARRIS, J.W.K. (1983). Cultural beginnings: Plio-Pleistocene archeological occurrences from the Afar, Ethiopia. The African Archeological Review, 1, 3-31.
53. HAYDEN, B. (1993). The cultural capacities of Neanderthals: A review and re-evaluation. Journal of Human Evolution, 24, 113-146.
54. HOYLE, R.H., KERNIS, M.H., LEARY, M.R., & BALDWIN, M.W. (1999). Selfhood: Identity, esteem, regulation. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
55. HOPKINS, J. (2000). Evolution, consciousness and the internality of the mind. In P. Carruthers & A. Chamberlin (eds). Evolution and the human mind: Modularity, language, and meta-cognition (pp. 276-298). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
56. HUMPHREY, N. (1980). Nature's psychologists. In B.D. Jospehson & V.S. Ramachandran (eds). Consciousness and the physical world (pp. 57-75). New York: Pergamon Press.
57. HUMPHREY, N. (1982, August 19). Consciousness: A just-so story. New Scientist, 474-477.
58. HUMPHREY, N. (1986). The inner eye. London: Faber & Faber.
59. HUMPHREY, N. (1998). Cave art, autism, and the evolution of the human mind. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 8, 165-191.
60. HYATT, C.W., & HOPKINS, W.D. (1994). Self-awareness in bonobos and chimpanzees: A comparative perspective. In S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell & M.L. Boccia (eds). Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 248-253). New York: Cambridge University Press.
61. INGOLD, T. (1996). Social relations, human ecology, and the evolution of culture: An exploration of concepts and definitions. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 178-203). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
62. ISSAC, G.L. (1978). The food-sharing behavior of proto-human hominids. Scientific American, 238, 90-108.
63. ISSAC, G.L. (1981). Archeological tests of alternative models of early hominid behavior: Excavation and experiments. In J. Young, E. Jope & K. Oakley (eds). The emergence of man (pp. 177-188). London: The Royal Society and the British Academy.
64. ISSAC, G.L. (1984). The archeology of human origins. Advances in World Archeology, 3, 1-87.
65. JAMES, S.R. (1989). Hominid use of fire in the lower and middle Pleistocene. Current Anthropology, 30, 1-26.
66. JAYNES, J. (1976). The origin of consciousness in the breakdown of the bicameral mind. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
67. JOHANSON, D., & EDGAR, B. (1996). From Lucy to language. New York: Simon & Schuster.
68. JOLLY, A. (1996). Primate communication, lies, and ideas. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 168-177). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
69. JONES, R. (1989). East of Wallace's line: Issues and problems in the colonisation of the Australian continent. In P. Mellars & C. Stringer (eds). The human revolution (pp. 743-782). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
70. KE, Y., SU, B., SONG, X., LU, D., CHEN, L., LI, H., QI, C., MARZUKI, S., DEKA, R., UNDERHILL, P., XIAO, C., SHRIVER, M., LELL, J., WALLACE, D., WELLS, R.S., SEIELSTAD, M., OEFNER, P., ZHU, D., JIN, J., HUANG, W., CHAKRABORTY, R., CHEN, Z., & JIN, L. (2001). African origin of modern humans in East Asia: A tale of 12,000 Y chromosomes. Science, 292, 1151-1153.
71. KELLEY, W.M., MACRAE, C.N., WYLAND, C.L., CAGLAR, S., INATI, S., & HEATHERTON, T.F. (2002). Finding the self? An event-related fMRI study. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 14, 785-794.
72. KLEIN, R.G. (1999). The human career: Human biological and cultural origins (2nd ed.). Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
73. KLEIN, R.G., & EDGAR, B. (2002). The dawn of human culture. New York: John Wiley & Sons.
74. KÖHLER, W. (1925). The mentality of apes. New York: Harcourt, Brace, & Co.
75. KOZLOWSKI, J.K. (1990). A multiaspectual approach to the origins of the upper Paleolithic in Europe. In P. Mellars (ed.). The emergence of modern humans: An archaeological perspective (pp. 419-437). Ithica, NY: Cornell University Press.
76. KRANTZ, G. (1980). Sapienization and speech. Current Anthropology, 21, 773-792.
77. KUMMER, H. (1971). Primate societies: Group techniques of ecological adaptation. Chicago: Aldine.
78. LEAKEY, M.D., & LEWIN, R. (1977). Origins. New York: E.P. Dutton.
79. LEARY, M.R. (in press). The curse of the self: Self-awareness, egotism, and the quality of human life. New York: Oxford University Press.
80. LEARY, M.R., & TANGNEY, J.P. (2002a). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford Press.
81. LEARY, M.R., & TANGNEY, J.P. (2002b). The self as an organizing construct in the social and behavioral sciences. In M.R. Leary & J.P. Tangney (eds). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford Press.
82. LEROI-GOURHAN, A. (1967). Treasures of prehistoric art. New York: Harry N. Abrams.
83. LEROI-GOURHAN, A. (1982). The dawn of European art. (Trans. S. Champion). Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
84. LETHMATE, J., & DÜCKER, G. (1973). Investigation of self-recognition in the mirror by orangutans and some other types of ape. Zeitschrift für Tierpsychologie, 33, 248-269.
85. LEWIS, C., & MITCHELL, P. (eds). (1994). Children's early understanding of mind: Origins and development. Hove, England: Erlbaum.
86. MADDISON, D.R., RUVOLO, M., & SWOFFORD, D.L. (1992). Geographic origins of human mitochondrial DNA: Phylogenetic evidence from control region sequences. Systematic Biology, 41, 111-124.
87. MARSHACK, A. (1989). Evolution of the human capacity: The symbolic evidence. Yearbook of Physical Anthropology, 32, 1-34.
88. MARSHACK, A. (1996). A Middle Paleolithic symbolic composition from the Golan Heights: The earliest known depictive image. Current Anthropology, 37, 357-365.
89. MARSHACK, A. (1997). The Berekhat Ram figurine: A late Acheulian carving from the Middle East. Antiquity, 71, 327-337.
90. MEGARRY, T. (1995). Society in prehistory: The origins of human culture. Washington Square, NY: New York University Press.
91. MELLARS, P.A. (1991). Cognitive changes and the emergence of modern humans in Europe. Cambridge Archaeological Journal, 1, 63-76.
92. MILES, H.L. (1994). ME CHANTEK: The development of self-awareness in a signing orangutan. In S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell, & M.L. Boccia (eds). Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 254-272). New York: Cambridge University Press.
93. MISCHEL, W., & MORF, C. (2002). The self as a psycho-social dynamic processing system: A meta-perspective on a century of self in psychology. In M.R. Leary & J.P. Tangney (eds). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford.
94. MITCHELL, R.W. (2002). Subjectivity and self-recognition in animals. In M.R. Leary & J.P. Tangney (eds). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford.
95. MITHEN, S. (1996). The prehistory of the mind. London: Thames and Hudson.
96. MITHEN, S. (1998). A creative, explosion? Theory of mind, language and the disembodied mind of the Upper Palaeolithic. In S. Mithen (ed.). Creativity in human evolution and prehistory (pp. 165-191). London: Routledge.
97. MITHEN, S. (2000). Palaeoanthropological perspectives on the theory of mind. In S. Baron-Cohen, H. Tager-Flusberg, & D. Cohen (eds). Understanding other minds (pp. 488-502). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
98. MOUNTAIN, J.L. (1998). Molecular evolution and modern human origins. Evolutionary Anthropology, 7, 21-37.
99. NEI, M. (1992). Age of the common ancestor of human mitochondrial DNA. Molecular Biology and Evolution, 9, 1176-1178.
100. NEISSER, U. (1988). Five kinds of self-knowledge. Philosophical Psychology, 1, 35-59.
101. NEISSER, U. (1997). The roots of self-knowledge: Perceiving self, I, it, and thou. In J.G. Snodgrass & R.L. Thompson (eds). The self across psychology (pp. 19-33). New York: New York Academy of Sciences.
102. NOBLE, W., & DAVIDSON, I. (1996). Human evolution, language, and mind. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
103. OAKLEY, K.P. (1959). Man the tool-maker. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
104. OLSON, E.T. (1999). There is no problem of the self. In S. Gallagher & J. Shear (eds). Models of the self (pp. 49-61). Thorverton, UK: Imprint Academic.
105. PARKER, S.T. (1991). A developmental model for the origins of self-recognition in great apes. Human Evolution, 6, 435-449.
106. PARKER, S.T. (1994). Incipient mirror self-recognition in zoo gorillas and chimpanzees. In S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell, & M.L. Boccia (eds). Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 301-307). New York: Cambridge University Press.
107. PARKER, S.T. (1997). A general model for the adaptive function of self-knowledge in animals and humans. Consciousness and Cognition, 6, 75-86.
108. PARKER, S.T. (1998). A social selection model for the evolution and adaptive significance of self-conscious emotions. In M.D. Ferrari & R.J. Sternberg (eds). Self-awareness: Its nature and development (pp. 108-134). New York: Guilford Press.
109. PARKER, S.T., MITCHELL, R.W., & BOCCIA, M.L. (eds) (1994). Self-awareness in animals and humans. New York: Cambridge University Press.
110. PATTERSON, F.G.P., & COHN, R.H. (1994). Self-recognition and self-awareness in lowland gorillas. In S.T. Parker, R.W. Mitchell, & M.L. Boccia (eds). Self-awareness in animals and humans (pp. 273-290). New York: Cambridge University Press.
111. PFEIFFER, J.E. (1978). The emergence of man. New York: Harper & Row.
112. PFEIFFER, J.E. (1982). The creative explosion. New York: Harper & Row.
113. PILBEAM, D. (1984). The descent of hominoids and hominids. Scientific American, 250, 60-69.
114. PINKER, S. (1994). The language instinct. New York: HarperCollins.
115. PINKER, S. (1997). How the mind works. New York: Norton.
116. POTTS, R.B. (1984). Home bases and early hominids. American Scientist, 72, 338-347.
117. POVINELLI, D.J., & CANT, J.G.H. (1995). Arboreal clambering and the evolution of self-conception. Quarterly Review of Biology, 70, 393-421.
118. POVINELLI, D.J., & PRINCE, C.G. (1998). When self met other. In M. Ferrari & R.J. Sternberg (eds). Self-awareness: Its nature and development (pp. 37-107). New York: Guilford Press.
119. ROCHAT, P. (2003). Six levels of self-awareness as they unfold early in life. Unpublished manuscript, Emory University.
120. SAMUELS, R. (2000). Massively modular minds: Evolutionary psychology and cognitive architecture. In P. Carruthers & A. Chamberlain (eds). Evolution and the human mind. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
121. SARICH, V.M. (1980). Molecular clocks and human evolution after 12 years. American Journal of Physical Anthropology, 52, 275-276.
122. SAVAGE-RUMBAUGH, S. (1994). Hominid evolution: Looking to modern apes for clues. In D. Quiatt & J. Itani (eds). Hominid culture in primate perspective (pp. 7-49). Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado.
123. SCHICK, K.D., & TOTH, N. (1993). Making silent stones speak. New York: Simon & Schuster.
124. SEDIKIDES, C., & SKOWRONSKI, J.J. (1997). The symbolic self in evolutionary context. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 1, 80-102.
125. SEDIKIDES, C., & SKOWRONSKI, J.J. (2000). On the evolutionary functions of the symbolic self: The emergence of self-evaluation motives. In A. Tesser, R.B. Felson, & J. Suls (eds). Psychological perspectives on self and identity (pp. 91-117). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
126. SEDIKIDES, C., & SKOWRONSKI, J.J. (2002). Evolution of the symbolic self: Issues and prospects. In M.R. Leary & J.P. Tangney (eds). Handbook of self and identity. New York: Guilford Press.
127. SHILLITO, D.J., GALLUP, G.G., Jr., & BECK, B.B. (1999). Factors affecting mirror behaviour in western lowland gorillas. Gorilla gorilla. Animal Behaviour, 57, 999-1004.
128. SKOWRONSKI, J.J., & SEDIKIDES, C. (1999). Evolution of the symbolic self. In D.H. Rosen & M.C. Luebbert (eds). Evolution of the psyche: Human evolution, behavior, and intelligence (pp. 78-94). Westport, CT: Praeger.
129. STONEKING, M. (1993). DNA and recent human evolution. Evolutionary Anthropology, 2, 60-73.
130. STONEKING, M., SHERRY, S.T., REDD, A.J., & VIGILANT, L. (1993). New approach to dating suggest a recent age for the human mtDNA ancestor. In M.J. Aitken, C. Stringer, & P. Mellars (eds). The origins of modern humans and the impact of Chronometric dating (pp. 84-103). Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
131. STRINGER, C.B. (1985). On Zhoukoudian. Current Anthropology, 26, 635.
132. STRINGER, C.B. (1990). The emergence of modern humans. Scientific American, 263, 68-74.
133. STRINGER, C. (2003). Out of Ethiopia. Nature, 423, 692-695.
134. TATTERSALL, I. (1986). Species recognition in human paleontology. Journal of Human Evolution, 15, 165-175.
135. TATTERSALL, I. (1995). The fossil trail. New York: Oxford University Press.
136. TATTERSALL, I. (2001, Dec.). How we came to be human. Scientific American, 56-63.
137. TOBIAS, P.V. (1987). The brain of Homo habilis: A new level of organization in cerebral evolution. Journal of Human Evolution, 16, 741-761.
138. TOTH, N., SCHICK, K.D., SAVAGE-RUMBAUGH, E.S., SEVCIK, R., & RUMBAUGH, D. (1993). Investigations in the stone tool-making and tool-using capabilities of a bonobo. Journal of Archeological Science, 20, 81-91.
139. TRIVERS, R. (1985). Social evolution. Menlo Park, CA: Benjamin Cummings.
140. VIGILANT, L., STONEKING, M., HARPENDING, H., HAWKES, K., & WILSON, A.C. (1991). African populations and the evolution of human mitochondrial DNA. Science, 253, 1503-1507.
141. VRBA, E.S. (1988). Late Pleistocene climatic events and hominid evolution. In F.E. Grine (ed.). Evolutionary history of the "robust" Austalopithecines (pp. 405-426). New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
142. WADDELL, P.J., & PENNY, D. (1996). Evolutionary trees of apes and humans from DNA sequences. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 53-73). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
143. WESTERGAARD, G.C., & HYATT, C.W. (1994). The responses of bonobos (Pan paniscus) to their mirror images: Evidence of self-recognition. Human Evolution, 9, 273-279.
144. WHITE, R.K. (1996). On the evolution of human socio-cultural patterns. In A. Lock, & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 239-262). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
145. WHITE, T.D., et al. (2003). Pleistocene Homo sapiens from Middle Awash, Ethiopia Nature, 423, 742-747.
146. WHITEN, A., GOODALL, J., MCGREW, W.C., NISHIDA, T., REYNOLDS, V., SUGIYAMA, Y, TITIN, C.E.G., WRANGHAM, R.W., & BOESCH, C. (1999). Cultures in chimpanzees. Nature, 399, 682-685.
147. WHITEN, A., & BYRNE, R.W. (1988). The Machiavellian intelligence hypotheses: Editorial. In R. Byrne & A. Whiten (eds). Machiavellian intelligence: Social expertise and the evolution of intellect in monkeys, apes, and humans (pp. 1-9). Oxford, UK: Clarendon.
148. WOLPOFF, M.H., Wu, X.Z., & THORNE, A.G. (1984). Modern Homo sapiens origins: A general theory of Hominid evolution involving the fossil evidence from East Asia and Australia. In F.H. Smith & F. Spencer (eds). The origins of modern humans: A world survey of the fossil evidence (pp. 411-483). New York: A. R. Liss.
149. WOOD, B., & COLLARD, M. (1999). The human genus. Science, 284, 65-71.
150. WYMER, J. (1982). The palaeolithic age. New York: St. Martin's Press.
151. WYNN, T.G. (1978). Tool-using and tool-making. Man, 13, 137-138.
152. WYNN, T.G. (1985). Piaget, stone tools and the evolution of human intelligence. World Archaeology, 17, 31-43.
153. WYNN, T.G. (1996). The evolution of tools and symbolic behavior. In A. Lock & C.R. Peters (eds). Handbook of human symbolic evolution (pp. 263-287). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
154. ZIHLMAN, A.L., CRONIN, J.E., CRAMER, D.L., & SARICH, V.M. (1978). Pygmy chimpanzee as a possible prototype for the common ancestor of humans and gorillas. Nature, 275, 744-746.