Substance Abuse as a Risk Factor for Schizophrenia and Related Disorders

International Journal of Mental Health

Volumn 30, Issue 1, 2001, Pages 33-57

  Bowers Jr , Malcolm ^a   Boutros, Nashaat ^a   D'Souza, Deepak Cyril ^a   Madonick, Steven ^a  

^a YALE UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0347117534     PISSN: 00207411     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/00207411.2001.11449509     Document Type: Article

References (149)

1. Bowers, M.B., Jr. (1972) Acute psychosis induced by psychotomimetic drug abuse. I. Clinical findings. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27, 437.
2. Allenbeck, P., Adamsson, C., & Engstrom, A. (1993) Cannabis and schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of cases treated in Stockholm County. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 88, 21.
3. Linszen, D.H., Dingemans, P.M., & Lenior, M.E. (1994) Cannabis abuse and the course of recent onset schizophrenic disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 51, 273.
4. Hambrecht, M., & Hafner, H. (1996) Substance abuse and the onset of schizophrenia. Biological Psychiatry, 40, 1155.
5. Rabinowitz, J., Bromet, E.J., Lavelle, J., Carlson, G., Kovasznay, B., & Schwartz, J.E. (1998) Prevalence and severity of substance use disorders and onset of psychosis in first admission psychotic patients. Psychological Medicine, 28, 1411.
6. Cantwell, R., Brewin, J., Glazebrook, C., Dalkin, T., Fox, R., Medley, I., & Harrison, G. (1999) Prevalence of substance misuse in first-episode psychosis. British Journal of Psychiatry, 174, 150.
7. Stoll, W.A. (1947) Lysergsaure-diathylamid: Ein phantastikum aus der mutterkorngruppe. Schweiz Archives für Neurologie und Psychiatrie, 60, 1.
8. Busch, S.K., & Johnson, W.C. (1950) LSD-25 as an aid in psychotherapy. Diseases of the Nervous System, 11, 241.
9. Rinkel, M., DeShon, H.J., Hyde, R.W., & Solomon, H.C. (1952) Experimental schizophrenia-like symptoms. American Journal of Psychiatry, 108, 572.
10. Hoch, P.H., Cattell, J.P., & Pennes, H.H. (1952) Effects of mescaline and lysergic acid (d-LSD-25). American Journal of Psychiatry, 108, 579.
11. Savage, C. (1955) Variations in ego feeling induced by LSD-25. Psychoanalytic Revue, 42, 1.
12. Elkes, C., Elkes, J., & Mayer-Gross, W. (1955) Hallucinogenic drugs. Lancet, 268, 719.
13. Cohen, S., & Ditman, K.S. (1962) Complications associated with lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD-25). Journal of the American Medical Association, 181, 161.
14. Cole, J.O., & Katz, M.M. (1964) The psychotomimetic drugs - An overview. Journal of the American Medical Association, 187, 758.
15. Schwarz, C.J. (1968) The complications of LSD: A review of the literature. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 146, 174.
16. Strassman, R.J. (1984) Adverse reactions to psychedelic drugs - A review of the literature. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 172, 577.
17. Abraham, H.D., & Aldridge, A.M. (1993) Adverse consequences of lysergic acid diethylamide. Addiction, 88, 1327.
18. Bowers, M.B., Jr. (1972) Acute psychosis induced by psychotomimetic drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry, 27, 437.
19. Breakey, W.R., Goodell, H., Lorenz, P.C., & McHugh, P.R. (1974) Hallucinogenic drugs as precipitants of schizophrenia. Psychological Medicine, 4, 255.
20. Cleghorn, J.M., Kaplan, R.D., Szechtman, B., Szechtman, H., Brown, G.M., & Franco, S. (1991) Substance abuse and schizophrenia. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52, 26.
21. Bowers, M.B., Jr. (1977) Psychoses precipitated by psychotomimetic drugs - A follow-up study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 34, 832.
22. Tsuang, M.T., Simpson, J.C., & Kronfol, Z. (1982) Subtypes of drug abuse with psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 39, 141.
23. Vardy, M., & Kay, S.R. (1983) LSD psychosis or LSD-induced schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 40, 877.
24. Angrist, B. (1994) Amphetamine psychosis: Clinical variations of the syndrome. In C.K. Cho & D.S. Segal (Eds.), Amphetamine and its analogs: Psychopharmacology, toxicology and abuse. San Diego: Academic Press. Pp. 387-414.
25. Angrist, B., & Gershon, S. (1970) The phenomenology of experimentally induced amphetamine psychosis - Preliminary observations. Biological Psychiatry, 2, 95.
26. Angrist, B., Shopsin, B., & Gershon, S. (1972) Metabolites of monoamines in urine and cerebrospinal fluids after large dose amphetamine administration. Psychopharmacologia, 26, 1.
27. Griffith, J.D., Cavanaugh, J., Held, J., & Oates, J.A. (1972) Dextroamphetamine evaluation of psychomimetic properties in man. Archives of General Psychiatry, 26, 97.
28. Bell, D.S. (1973) The experimental reproduction of amphetamine psychosis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29, 35.
29. Sato, M., Chen, C.-C., Kazufumi, A., & Otsuki, S. (1983) Acute exacerbation of paranoid psychotic state after long-term abstinence in patients with previous methamphetamine psychosis. Biological Psychiatry, 18, 429.
30. Iwanami, A., Sugiyama, A., Kuroki, N., Toda, S., Kato, N., Nakatani, Y., Horita, N., & Kaneko, T. (1994) Patients with methamphetamine psychosis admitted to a psychiatric hospital in Japan. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 89, 428.
31. Snyder, S.H. (1973) Amphetamine psychosis: A "model" schizophrenia mediated by catecholamines. American Journal of Psychiatry, 130, 61.
32. Iwanami, A., Kato, N., & Nakatani, Y. (1991) P300 in methamphetamine psychosis. Biological Psychiatry, 30, 726.
33. Iwanami, A., Suga, I., Kato, N., Nakatani, Y., & Kaneko, T. (1993) Event-related potentials in methamphetamine psychosis during an auditory discrimination task. A preliminary report. European Archives of Psychiatry and Clinical Neuroscience, 242, 203.
34. Yui, K., Goto, K., Ikemoto, S., & Ishiguro, T. (1996) Plasma monoamine metabolites and spontaneous recurrence of methamphetamine-induced paranoid-hallucinatory psychosis: Relation of noradrenergic activity to the occurrence of flashbacks. Psychiatry Research, 63, 93.
35. Yui, K., Goto, K., Ikemoto, S., & Ishiguro, T. (1997) Methamphetamine psychosis: Spontaneous recurrence of paranoid-hallucinatory states and the monoamine neurotransmitter function. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 17, 34.
36. Yui, K., Ishiguro, T., Goto, K., & Ikemoto, S. (1997) Precipitating factors in spontaneous recurrence of methamphetamine psychosis. Psychopharmacology, 134, 303.
37. Weiner, N. (1985) Norepinepherine, epinepherine and the sympathomimeticamines. In A.G. Goodman et al. (Eds.), The pharmacological basis of therapeutics (7th ed.). New York: Macmillan. Pp. 145-80.
38. Ricaute, G.A., & McCann, U.A. (1992) Neurotoxic amphetamine analogues: Effects in monkeys and implications for humans. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 648, 371.
39. Ellinwood, E.H., Jr. (1967) Amphetamine psychosis: Description of the individuals and the process. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 144, 273.
40. Ellinwood, E.H., Jr. (1972) Amphetamine psychosis: Individuals, settings and sequences. In E.H. Ellinwood & S. Cohen (Eds.), Current concepts on amphetamine abuse. Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office. P. 143.
41. Gold, M.S., & Bowers, M.B. (1978) Neurobiological vulnerability to low-dose amphetamine psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 1546.
42. Sharma, R.P., Javaid, J.I., Pandey, G.N., Janicak, P.G, & Davis, J.M. (1991) Behavioral and biochemical effects of methylphenidate response. Biological Psychiatry, 30, 459.
43. Levy, D.L., Smith, M., Robinson, D., Jody, D., Lerner, G., Alvir, J., Geisler, S.H., Szymanski, S.R., Gonzalez, A., Mayerhoff, D.I., Lieberman, J.A., & Mendell, N.R. (1993) Methylphenidate increases thought disorder in recent onset schizophrenics, but not in normal controls. Biological Psychiatry, 34, 507.
44. Lieberman, J.A., Alvir, J., Geisler, S., Ramos-Lorenzi, J., Woerner, M., Novacenko, H., Cooper, T., & Kane, J.M. (1994) Methylphenidate response, psychopathology and tardive dyskinesia as predictors of relapse in schizophrenia. Neuropsychopharmacology, 11, 107.
45. Flaum, M.S., & Schultz, S.K. (1996) When does amphetamine-induced psychosis become schizophrenia? American Journal of Psychiatry, 153, 812.
46. Kalivas, P.W., & Stewart, J. (1991) Dopamine transmission in the initiation and expression of drug and stress-induced sensitization of motor activity. Brain Research Revue, 16, 223.
47. Robinson, T.E., & Becker, J.B. (1986) Enduring changes in brain and behavior produced by chronic amphetamine administration: A review and evaluation of animal models of amphetamine psychosis. Brain Research Revue, 11, 157.
48. Antelman, S.M. (1988) Stressor-induced sensitization to subsequent stress: Implications for the development and treatment of clinical disorders. In P.W. Barnes & C.D. Kalivas (Eds.), Sensitization in the nervous system: Advances in physiology. Caldwell, NJ: Telford Press. Vol. 1, pp. 227-56.
49. Barnes, P.W., & Kalivas, C.D. (Eds.) (1988) Sensitization in the nervous system: Advances in physiology. Caldwell, NJ: Telford Press.
50. Kalivas, P.W. (1992) Neural substrate sensitization to psychostimulants. Clinical Neuropsychopharmacology, 15, Suppl. 1, part A, 648A-649A.
51. Kalivas, P.W. (1995) Interactions between dopamine and excitatory amino acids in behavioral sensitization to psychostimulants. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 37, 95.
52. Lieberman, J.A., Kinon, B.J., & Loebel, A.D. (1990) Dopaminergic mechanisms in idiopathic and drug-induced psychoses. Schizophrenia Bulletin, 16, 97.
53. Ali, S.F., Kordsmeier, K.J., & Gough, B. (1995) Drug-induced circling preferences in rats. Correlation with monoamine levels. Molecular Neurobiology, 11, 145.
54. Miller, B.L., Mena, I., Giombetti, R., Villanueva-Meyer, J., & Djenderedjian, A.H. (1992) Neuropsychiatric effects of cocaine: SPECT measurements. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 11, 47.
55. Angrist, B., Sathanthan, G., Wilks, S., & Gershon, S. (1974) Amphetamine psychosis: Behavioral and biochemical aspects. Journal of Psychiatry Research, 11, 13.
56. Manschereck, T.C., Laughery, J.A., Weisstein, C.C., Allen, D., Humblestone, B., Neville, M., Podiewski, H., & Mitra, N. (1988) Characteristics of freebase cocaine psychosis. Yale Journal of Biology and Medicine, 61, 115.
57. Singer, L., Arendt, R., Minnes, S., Farkas, K., Yamashita, T., & Kliegman, R. (1995) Increased psychological distress in postpartum, cocaine-using mothers. Journal of Substance Abuse, 7, 165.
58. Ries, R.K. (1993) The dually diagnosed patient with psychotic symptoms. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 12, 103.
59. Satel, L.S., & Edell, W.S. (1991) Cocaine-induced paranoia and psychosis proneness. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1708.
60. Sherer, M.A., Kumor, K.M., Cone, E.J., & Jaffe, J.H. (1988) Suspiciousness induced by four-hour intravenous infusions of cocaine. Archives of General Psychiatry, 45, 673.
61. Rounsaville, B.J., Anton, S.F., & Carrol, K. (1991) Psychiatric diagnoses of treatment-seeking cocaine abusers. American Journal of Psychiatry, 148, 1708.
62. Brady, K.T., Lydiard, R.B., Malcolm, R., & Ballenger, J.C. (1991). Cocaine-induced psychosis. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 52, 509.
63. McLellan, A.T., Woody, G.E., & O'Brien, C.P. (1979) Development of psychiatric illness in drug abusers: Possible role of drug preference. New England Journal of Medicine, 301, 1310.
64. Williamson, S., Gossop, M., Powis, B., Griffiths, P., Fountain, J., & Strang J. (1997) Adverse effects of stimulant drugs in a community sample of drug users. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 44, 87.
65. Bartlett, E., Hallin, A., Chapman, B., & Angrist, B. (1997) Selective sensitization to the cocaine-inducing effects of cocaine: A possible marker for addiction relapse vulnerability. Neuropsychopharmacology, 16, 77.
66. Rosse, R.B., Collins, J.P., Jr., Fay-McCarthy, M., Alim, T.N., Wyatt, R.J., & Deutsch, S.I. (1994) Phenominologic comparison of the idiopathic psychosis of schizophrenia and drug-induced cocaine and phencyclidine psychoses: A retrospective study. Clinical Neuropharmacology, 17, 359.
67. Lysaker, P., Bell, M., Beam-Goulet, J., & Milstein, R. (1994) Relationship between positive and negative symptoms to cocaine abuse in schizophrenia. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 182, 109.
68. Borowski, T.B., & Kokinidis, L. (1998) The effects of cocaine, amphetamine, and the D11 receptor agonist SKF 38393 on fear extinction as measured with potentiated startle: Implications for psychomotor stimulant psychosis. Behavioral Neuroscience, 112, 952.
69. Post, R. (1975) Cocaine psychosis: A continuum model. American Journal of Psychiatry, 132, 225.
70. Gawin, F.H. (1986) Neuroleptic reduction of cocaine-induced paranoia but not euphoria? Psychopharmacology, 90, 142.
71. Moreau de Tours, J.J. (1972) Du haschisch et de l'alienation mentale. Paris: Masson. [Hashish and mental illness] (translated by G. Barnett). New York: Raven Press, 1990.
72. Moreau de Tours, J.J. (1972) Du haschisch et de l'alienation mentale. Paris: Masson. [Hashish and mental illness] (translated by G. Barnett). New York: Raven Press, 1990.
73. Martin, B.R., Welch, S.P., & Abood, M. (1994) Progress towards understanding the cannabinoid receptor and its second messenger systems. Advances in Pharmacology, 25, 341.
74. Martin, B.R. (1995) In psychopharmacology: The fourth generation of progress. New York: Raven Press.
75. Abood, M.E., & Martin, B.R. (1992) Neurobiology of marijuana abuse. Trends In Pharmacological Sciences, 13(5), 201.
76. Herkenham, M., Lynn, A.B., Little, M.D., Johnson, M.R., Melvin, L.S., de Costa, B.R., & Rice, K.C. (1990) Cannabinoid receptor localization in the brain. Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA, 87(1), 1932.
77. Mailleux, P., Parmentier, M., & Vanderhaegen, J.J. (1992) Distribution of cannabinoid messenger RNA in the human brain: An in situ hybridization with oligonucleotides. Neuroscience Letters, 143, 200.
78. Schneider, U., Leweke, F.M., Mueller-Vahl, K.R., & Emrich, H.M. (1998) Cannabinoid/anandamide system and schizophrenia: Is there evidence for association? Pharmacopsychiatry, 31, 110.
79. Emrich, H., Leweke, M., & Schneider, U. (1997) Towards a cannabinoid hypothesis of schizophrenia: Cognitive impairments due to dysregulation of the endogenous cannabinoid system. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 56(4), 803.
80. Devane, W.A., Hanus, L., Breuer, A., Pertwee, R.G., Stevenson, L.A., Griffin, G., Gibson, D., Mandelbaum, A., Ettinger, A., & Mechoulam, R. (1992) Isolation and structure of a brain constituent that binds to the cannabinoid receptor. Nature, 258, 1946.
81. Mechoulam, R., Fride, E., & Di Marzo, V. (1998) Endocannabinoids. [Review]. European Journal of Pharmacology, 359(1), 1.
82. Pertwee, R.G. (1992) In vivo interactions between psychotropic cannabinoids and other drugs involving central and peripheral neurochemical mediators. In L. Murphy & A. Bartke (Eds.), Marijuana/cannabinoids: Neurobiology and neurophysiology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
83. Bonnin, A., de-Miguel, R., Castro, J.G., Raos, J.A., & Fernadez-Ruiz, J.J. (1960) Effects of perinatal exposure to δ-9-THC on the fetal and early postnatal development of tyrosine hydroxylase-containing neurons in rat brain. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 7, 291.
84. Hernandez, M.L., Garcia-Gil, L., Berrendro, F., Ramos, J.A., & Fernandez-Ruiz, J.J. (1997) δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol increases the activity of tyrosine hydroxylase in cultured fetal mesencephalic neurons. Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, 8, 83.
85. Schildkraut, J.J., & Efron, D.H. (1971) The effects of δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol on the metabolism of norepinephrine in rat brain. Psychopharmacologia, 20(2), 191.
86. Poddar, M.K., & Dewey, W.L. (1980) Effects of cannabinoids of catecholamine uptake and release in hypothalmic and striatal synaptosomes. Journal of Pharmacology & Experimental Therapeutics, 214, 63.
87. Hershkowitz, M., Goldman, R., & Raz, A. (1977) Effect of cannabinoids on neurotransmitter uptake: ATPase activity and morphology of mouse brain synaptosomes. Biochemical Pharmacology, 26, 1327.
88. Bannerjee, S.P., Snyder, S.H., & Mechoulam, R. (1975) Cannabinoids: Influence on neurotransmitter uptake in rat brain synaptosomes. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 194, 74.
89. Gardner, E.L. (1992) Cannabinoid interaction with brain reward systems - The neurobiological basis of cannabinoid abuse. In L. Murphy & A. Bartke (Eds.), Marijuana/cannabinoids: Neurobiology and neurophysiology. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press.
90. Gardner, E.L., Paredes, W., Smith, D., Donner, A., Milling, C., Cohen, D., & Morrison, D. (1988) Facilitation of brain stimulation reward by δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol. Psychopharmacology, 96, 142.
91. Sakurai-Yamashita, Y., Katoaka, Y., Fujiwara, M., Mine, K., & Ueki, S. (1989) δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol facilitates striatal dopaminergic transmission. Pharmacology, Biochemistry and Behavior, 33, 397.
92. Tanda, G., Ponteiri, F.E., & de Chiara, G. (1997) Cannabinoid and heroin activation of mesolimbic dopamine transmission by a common μ1 opioid receptor mechanism. Science, 276, 2048.
93. Chen, J., Marmur, R., Pulles, A., Paredes, W., & Gardner, E.L. (1993) Ventral tegmental microinjection of δ 9-tetrahydrocannabinol enhances ventral tegmental somatodendritic dopamine levels but not forebrain dopamine levels: Evidence for local neural action by marijuana's psychoactive ingredient. Brain Research, 621, 65.
94. Mailleux, P., & Vanderhaeghen, J.J. (1992) Distribution of neuronal cannabinoid receptor in the rat brain: A comparative receptor binding radioautography and in situ hybridization chemistry. Neuroscience, 48, 655.
95. Mailleux, P., & Vanderhaeghen, J.J. (1993) Dopaminergic regulation of cannabinoid receptor mRNA levels in the rat caudate: Putamen an in situ hybridization study. Journal of Neurochemistry, 61, 1705.
96. French, E.D. (1997) Cannabinoids excite dopamine neurons in the ventral tegmentum and substantia nigra. Neuroreport, 8, 649.
97. Navarro, M., Fernandez-Ruiz, J.J., de Miguel, R., Hernandez, M.L., Cebeira, M., & Ramos, J.A. (1993) An acute dose of δ-9-tetrahydrocannabinol affects behavioral and neurochemical indices of mesolimbic dopaminergic activity. Behavioral Brain Research, 57, 37.
98. Chopra, G.S., & Smith, J.W. (1974) Psychotic reactions following cannabis use in East Indians. Archives of General Psychiatry, 30, 24.
99. Bernhardsson, G., & Gunne, L. (1972) Forty-six cases of psychosis in cannabis users. International Journal of Addictions, 7, 9.
100. Harding, T., & Knight, F. (1973) Marijuana modified mania. Archives of General Psychiatry, 29, 635.
101. Mathers, D.C., & Ghodse, A.H. (1991) Cannabis and psychotic illness. British Journal of Psychiatry, 161, 648.
102. Carney, P., & Lipsedge, M. (1984) Psychosis after cannabis abuse. British Medical Journal, 288, 1047.
103. Eva, J. (1992) Cannabis psychosis. Psychiatric Bulletin, 16, 310.
104. Wylie, A.S., Scott, R.T.A., & Burnett, S.J. (1995) Psychosis due to "Skunk." British Medical Journal, 311, 125.
105. Rottanburg, D., Robins, A.H., Ben-Arie, O., Teggin, A., & Elk, R. (1982) Cannabis-associated psychosis with hypomanic features. Lancet, 18(2), 1364.
106. Hall, W. (1998) Cannabis and psychosis. Drug and Alcohol Review, 17, 433.
107. Thacore, V.R., & Shukla, S.R.P. (1976) Cannabis psychosis and paranoid schizophrenia. Archives of General Psychiatry, 33, 383.
108. Mathers, D.C., Ghodse, H., Caan, A.W., & Scott, S.A. (1991) Cannabis use in a large sample of acute psychiatric admissions. British Journal of Addiction, 86, 779.
109. Thornicroft, G. (1990) Cannabis and psychosis: Is there epidemiological evidence for association? British Journal of Psychiatry, 157, 25.
110. Thomas, H. (1993) Psychiatric symptoms in cannabis users. British Journal of Psychiatry, 163, 141.
111. Imade, A.G., & Ebie, J.C. (1991) A retrospective study of symptoms patterns of cannabis-induced psychosis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 83, 134.
112. Thornicroft, G., Meadows, G., & Politi, P. (1992) Is "cannabis psychosis" a distinct category? European Psychiatry, 7, 277.
113. McGuire, P.K., Jones, P., Harvey, I., Bebbington, P., Toone, B., Lewis, S., & Murray, R.M. (1994) Cannabis and acute psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 13, 161.
114. Gottesman, I.I. (1991) Schizophrenia genesis: The origins of madness. New York: W.H. Freeman and Co.
115. Mayor's Committee On Marijuana (1944) The marijuana problem in the City of New York. Lancaster, PA: Jacques Catell Press.
116. Ames, F. (1958) A clinical and metabolic study of acute intoxication with cannabis sativa and its role in model psychoses. Journal of Mental Science, 104, 972.
117. Isbell, H., Gorodetsky, C.W., & Jasinski, D.R., (1967) Effects of δ-9-transhydrocannabinol in man. Psychopharmcologia, 11, 184.
118. Isbell, H., & Jasinski, D.R. (1969) A comparison of LSD-25 with (-)-δ-9-terahydrocannabinol (THC) and attempted cross-tolerance between LSD and THC. Psychopharmacologia, 14, 115.
119. Hollister, L.E. (1986) Health aspect of cannabis. Pharmacological Review, 38, 1.
120. Lindemann, E., & Malamud, W. (1934) Experimental analysis of the psychopathological effects of intoxicating drugs. American Journal of Psychiatry, 90, 853.
121. Tien, A.Y., & Anthony, J.C. (1990) Epidemiological analysis of alcohol and drug use as risk factors for psychotic experiences. Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease, 178, 473.
122. Thomas, H. (1996) A community survey of adverse effects of cannabis use. Drug & Alcohol Dependence, 42(3), 201.
123. Hall, W., Teesson, M., Lynesky, M., & Degenhardt, L. (1998) The prevalence in the past year of substance use and ICD-10 substance use disorders in Australian adults: Findings from the National Survey of Mental Health and Well-being. National Drug and Alcohol Research Center Technical Report, No. 63. Sydney, Australia.
124. Docherty, J.P., van Kammen, D., Siris, S.G., & Marder, S.R. (1978) Stages of onset of schizophrenic psychosis. American Journal of Psychiatry, 135, 420.
125. Allebeck, P. (1991) Cannabis and schizophrenia: Is there a causal relationship? In G.G. Nahas & C. Latour (Eds.), Physiology of illicit drugs: Cannabis, cocaine and opiates. Oxford: Pergamon Press.
126. Hafner, H., Rischer-Rossler, A., Hambrecht, M., Maurer, K., Meissner, S., Schmidtke, A., Fatkenheuer, B., Loffler, W., & Van der Heiden, W. (1992) IRAOS: An instrument for the retrospective assessment of the onset of schizophrenia. Schizophrenia Research, 6, 209.
127. Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P., Engstromm, A., & Rydberg, U. (1987) Cannabis and schizophrenia: A longitudinal study of Swedish conscripts. Lancet, 11, 1483.
128. Andreasson, S., Allebeck, P., & Rydberg, U. (1989) Schizophrenia in users and nonusers of cannabis. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 79, 505.
129. Russell, J., Newman, S., & Bland, R. (1994) Drug abuse and dependence. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, Suppl. 376, p. 54.
130. Palsson, A., Thulin, S.O., & Tunving, K. (1982) Cannabis psychosis in south Sweden. Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica, 66, 311.
131. Negrete, S. (1989) Cannabis and schizophrenia. British Journal of Addiction, 84, 349.
132. Mott, J., (1985) Self-reported cannabis use in Great Britain in 1981. British Journal of Addiction, 80, 37.
133. Sybling, G., & Persoon, J.M.G. (1985) Cannabis use amongst youth in the Netherlands. WHO Bulletin on Narcotics, 37, 57.
134. Kandel, D.C.K., Warner, L.A., Kessler, R.C., & Grant, B. (1997) Prevalence and demographic correlates of symptoms of last year's dependence on alcohol, nicotine, marijuana and cocaine in the U.S. population. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 44, 11.
135. Hall, W., Solowij, N., & Lemon, J. (1994) The health and psychological effects of cannabis use. National Drug Strategy Monograph Series, No. 25. Canberra: Australian Government Publication Service.
136. Zubin, J., & Spring, B. (1977) Vulnerability - A new view of schizophrenia. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 86, 103.
137. Nuchterlain, K. (1987) Vulnerability models of schizophrenia: State of the art. In H. Hafner & W. Janzarik (Eds.), Search for the causes of schizophrenia. Berlin: Springer.
138. Newcomb, M.D., Maddahian, E., & Bentler, P.M. (1986) Risk factors for drug use among adolescents: Concurrent and longitudinal analyses. American Journal of Public Health, 76, 525.
139. Hawkins, J.D., Catalano, R.F., & Miller, J.Y. (1992) Risk and protective factors for alcohol and other drug problems in adolescence and early adulthood: Implications for substance abuse prevention. Psychological Bulletin, 112, 64.
140. Swadi, H. (1999) Individual risk factors and adolescent substance use. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 55, 209.
141. Shedler, J., & Block, J. (1990) Adolescent drug use and psychological health. American Psychologist, 45, 612.
142. Tobler, N.S., & Stratton, H.H. (1997) Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention: A meta-analysis of the research. Journal of Primary Prevention, 18, 71.
143. Tobler, N.S., Lessard, T., Marshall, D., Ochshorn, P., & Roona, M. (1999) Effectiveness of school-based drug prevention programs for marijuana use. School Psychology International, 20, 105.
144. Snow, D.L., Tebes, J.K., & Ayers, T.S. (1997) Impact of two social-cognitive interventions to prevent adolescent substance use. Journal of Drug Education, 27, 1.
145. Shope, J.T., Copeland, L.A., Kamp, M.E., & Lang, S.W. (1998) Twelfth grade follow-up of the effectiveness of a middle school-based substance abuse prevention program. Journal of Drug Education, 28, 185.
146. Bowers, M.B., Jr., & Swigar, M.E. (1983) Vulnerability to psychosis associated with hallucinogen use. Psychiatry Research, 9, 91.
147. Bowers, M.B., Jr. (1998) Family history and early psychotogenic response to marijuana. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 59, 198.
148. McGuire, P.K., Jones, P., Harvey, I., Williams, M., McGuffin, P., & Murray, R.M. (1995) Morbid risk of schizophrenia for relatives of patients with cannabis-associated psychosis. Schizophrenia Research, 15, 277.
149. Gottesman, I. (1984) Genes and hallucinogens don't mix. The Newsletter of the National Alliance for the Mentally Ill, 5, 3.