Underfed and Overfed: The Global Epidemic of Malnutrition

Worldwatch Paper

Volumn , Issue 150, 2000, Pages

  Gardner, Gary ^a   Halweil, Brian ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0347014857     PISSN: 02708019     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: None     Document Type: Article

References (274)

1. Clark Spencer Larsen, "Biological Changes in Human Populations with Agriculture," Annual Review of Anthropology, 1995; idem, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, discussion with Brian Halweil, 14 December 1999.
2. Clark Spencer Larsen, "Biological Changes in Human Populations with Agriculture," Annual Review of Anthropology, 1995; idem, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, discussion with Brian Halweil, 14 December 1999.
3. Larsen, "Biological Changes," op. cit. note 1.
4. Ibid.
5. Ibid.
6. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
7. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); 1.2 billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
8. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
9. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
10. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
11. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
12. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
13. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
14. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
15. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
16. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
17. Half the world from World Health Organization (WHO), World Health Report 1998 (Geneva: 1998); billion overweight and underweight are Worldwatch estimates, from United Nations (U.N.), Administrative Committee on Coordination, Sub-Committee on Nutrition (UN ACC/SCN), "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation" (draft) (New York: July 1999), from WHO, Obesity: Preventing and Managing the Global Epidemic, Report of a WHO Consultation on Obesity (Geneva: 1997), from K.M. Flegal et al., "Overweight and Obesity in the United States, Prevalence and Trends, 1960-1994," International Journal of Obesity, August 1998, and from Rafael Flores, Research Fellow, International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), Washington, DC, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 5 November 1999 and discussion with Gary Gardner, 3 February 2000; micronutrient deficiency from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note; Table 1 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. this note, from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. this note, from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note, and from Flores, op. cit. this note; half of modern-day Georgians from Flegal et al., op. cit. this note.
18. Half or more of the world's burden of disease based on John Mason, Department of International Health and Development, Tulane University, New Orleans, letter to Brian Halweil, 16 September 1999, Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), and Alan D. Lopez, Harvard University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 15 August 1999; more than 5 million children from WHO, "Malnutrition Worldwide," 〈www.who.int/nut〉, viewed 20 December 1999.
19. Half or more of the world's burden of disease based on John Mason, Department of International Health and Development, Tulane University, New Orleans, letter to Brian Halweil, 16 September 1999, Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), and Alan D. Lopez, Harvard University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 15 August 1999; more than 5 million children from WHO, "Malnutrition Worldwide," 〈www.who.int/nut〉, viewed 20 December 1999.
20. Half or more of the world's burden of disease based on John Mason, Department of International Health and Development, Tulane University, New Orleans, letter to Brian Halweil, 16 September 1999, Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), and Alan D. Lopez, Harvard University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 15 August 1999; more than 5 million children from WHO, "Malnutrition Worldwide," 〈www.who.int/nut〉, viewed 20 December 1999.
21. Half or more of the world's burden of disease based on John Mason, Department of International Health and Development, Tulane University, New Orleans, letter to Brian Halweil, 16 September 1999, Christopher J.L. Murray and Alan D. Lopez, eds., The Global Burden of Disease (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996), and Alan D. Lopez, Harvard University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 15 August 1999; more than 5 million children from WHO, "Malnutrition Worldwide," 〈www.who.int/nut〉, viewed 20 December 1999.
22. Obesity costs from Graham Colditz, Harvard School of Public Health, "The Economic Costs of Obesity and Inactivity," unpublished manuscript; India from Anthony R. Measham and Meera Chatterjee, "Wasting Away: The Crisis of Malnutrition in India" (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); women from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5, and from U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "Women Feed the World," prepared for World Food Day, 16 October 1998 (Rome: 1998).
23. Obesity costs from Graham Colditz, Harvard School of Public Health, "The Economic Costs of Obesity and Inactivity," unpublished manuscript; India from Anthony R. Measham and Meera Chatterjee, "Wasting Away: The Crisis of Malnutrition in India" (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); women from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5, and from U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "Women Feed the World," prepared for World Food Day, 16 October 1998 (Rome: 1998).
24. Obesity costs from Graham Colditz, Harvard School of Public Health, "The Economic Costs of Obesity and Inactivity," unpublished manuscript; India from Anthony R. Measham and Meera Chatterjee, "Wasting Away: The Crisis of Malnutrition in India" (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); women from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5, and from U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "Women Feed the World," prepared for World Food Day, 16 October 1998 (Rome: 1998).
25. Obesity costs from Graham Colditz, Harvard School of Public Health, "The Economic Costs of Obesity and Inactivity," unpublished manuscript; India from Anthony R. Measham and Meera Chatterjee, "Wasting Away: The Crisis of Malnutrition in India" (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1999); women from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5, and from U.N. Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), "Women Feed the World," prepared for World Food Day, 16 October 1998 (Rome: 1998).
26. Diabetes from International Diabetes Federation (IDF), "Diabetes Around the World" (Brussels: 1998), and 〈www.idf.org〉, viewed 14 July 1999.
27. Kerala from C. R. Soman, Professor of Nutrition, College of Medicine, University of Kerala, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 29 October 1999; Cuba from Dr. Jorge Dotres, Minister of Health, Republic of Cuba, presentation at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 1998.
28. Kerala from C. R. Soman, Professor of Nutrition, College of Medicine, University of Kerala, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 29 October 1999; Cuba from Dr. Jorge Dotres, Minister of Health, Republic of Cuba, presentation at Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, 1998.
29. Advertising in United States from Anthony E. Gallo, "Food Advertising in the United States," in Elizabeth Frazao, ed., America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Economic Research Service (ERS), April 1999), and advertising in Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, European Marketing Pocket Book, 1999 Edition (Oxfordshire, U.K.: 1998); more than half of advertising from Consumers International, A Spoonful of Sugar, Television Food Advertising Aimed at Children: An International Comparative Survey (London: 1996); overweight and obesity among Americans from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
30. Advertising in United States from Anthony E. Gallo, "Food Advertising in the United States," in Elizabeth Frazao, ed., America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Economic Research Service (ERS), April 1999), and advertising in Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, European Marketing Pocket Book, 1999 Edition (Oxfordshire, U.K.: 1998); more than half of advertising from Consumers International, A Spoonful of Sugar, Television Food Advertising Aimed at Children: An International Comparative Survey (London: 1996); overweight and obesity among Americans from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
31. Advertising in United States from Anthony E. Gallo, "Food Advertising in the United States," in Elizabeth Frazao, ed., America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Economic Research Service (ERS), April 1999), and advertising in Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, European Marketing Pocket Book, 1999 Edition (Oxfordshire, U.K.: 1998); more than half of advertising from Consumers International, A Spoonful of Sugar, Television Food Advertising Aimed at Children: An International Comparative Survey (London: 1996); overweight and obesity among Americans from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
32. Advertising in United States from Anthony E. Gallo, "Food Advertising in the United States," in Elizabeth Frazao, ed., America's Eating Habits: Changes and Consequences (Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Economic Research Service (ERS), April 1999), and advertising in Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, European Marketing Pocket Book, 1999 Edition (Oxfordshire, U.K.: 1998); more than half of advertising from Consumers International, A Spoonful of Sugar, Television Food Advertising Aimed at Children: An International Comparative Survey (London: 1996); overweight and obesity among Americans from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
33. Susan Horton, "The Economics of Nutrition Interventions" (draft, April 1999) in R.D. Semba, ed., Nutrition and Health in Developing Countries (Totowa, NJ: Humana Press, forthcoming).
34. Table 2 from FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World (Rome: 1999); WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
35. Table 2 from FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World (Rome: 1999); WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
36. Table 2 from FAO, The State of Food Insecurity in the World (Rome: 1999); WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
37. Corinne Cataldo et al., Nutrition and Diet Therapy: Principles and Practices (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1999).
38. Ibid.; traditional diets from a multiyear international conference series, "Public Health Implications of Traditional Diets," organized by Oldways Preservation & Exchange Trust, Cambridge, MA, 〈www. oldwayspt.com〉, viewed 31 January 2000.
39. Ibid.; traditional diets from a multiyear international conference series, "Public Health Implications of Traditional Diets," organized by Oldways Preservation & Exchange Trust, Cambridge, MA, 〈www. oldwayspt.com〉, viewed 31 January 2000.
40. FAO, op. cit. note 12; Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? Food Consumption and Nutrition Division (FCND) Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998).
41. FAO, op. cit. note 12; Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? Food Consumption and Nutrition Division (FCND) Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998).
42. Table 3 from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5.
43. UN ACC/SCN, "Fourth Report on the World Nutrition Situation," op. cit. note 5.
44. Lawrence Haddad, Marie T. Ruel, and James L. Garrett, "Are Urban Poverty and Undernutrition Growing? Some Newly Assembled Evidence," Food Consumption and Nutrition Division (FCND) Discussion Paper No. 63 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, April 1999).
45. USDA, "Household Food Security in the United States, 1995-1998" (Advance Report) (Washington, DC: July 1999); Graham Riches, ed., First World Hunger (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
46. USDA, "Household Food Security in the United States, 1995-1998" (Advance Report) (Washington, DC: July 1999); Graham Riches, ed., First World Hunger (New York: St. Martin's Press, 1997).
47. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; BMI is calculated as a person's weight in kilos divided by the square of height in meters. Thus, a person standing 1.78 meters (5 feet, 10 inches) tall and weighing 80 kilos (175 pounds) has a BMI of 25, and is considered overweight; at 95 kilos (210 pounds), the same person would be considered obese.
48. Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5; childhood overweight and obesity from Rajen Anand, introductory presentation to "Childhood Obesity: Causes and Prevention," symposium sponsored by USDA, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Washington, DC, 27 October 1998; obesity in Europe from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
49. Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5; childhood overweight and obesity from Rajen Anand, introductory presentation to "Childhood Obesity: Causes and Prevention," symposium sponsored by USDA, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Washington, DC, 27 October 1998; obesity in Europe from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
50. Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5; childhood overweight and obesity from Rajen Anand, introductory presentation to "Childhood Obesity: Causes and Prevention," symposium sponsored by USDA, Center for Nutrition Policy and Promotion, Washington, DC, 27 October 1998; obesity in Europe from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
51. U.N. survey from Flores, op. cit. note 5; China data from Catherine Geissler, "China: The Soya Pork Dilemma," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, May 1999, and from Barry M. Popkin et al., "Body Weight Patterns among the Chinese: Results from the 1989 and 1991 China Health and Nutrition Surveys," American Journal of Public Health, May 1995; Brazil and Colombia from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; overweight exceeding underweight from Flores, op. cit. note 5.
52. U.N. survey from Flores, op. cit. note 5; China data from Catherine Geissler, "China: The Soya Pork Dilemma," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, May 1999, and from Barry M. Popkin et al., "Body Weight Patterns among the Chinese: Results from the 1989 and 1991 China Health and Nutrition Surveys," American Journal of Public Health, May 1995; Brazil and Colombia from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; overweight exceeding underweight from Flores, op. cit. note 5.
53. U.N. survey from Flores, op. cit. note 5; China data from Catherine Geissler, "China: The Soya Pork Dilemma," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, May 1999, and from Barry M. Popkin et al., "Body Weight Patterns among the Chinese: Results from the 1989 and 1991 China Health and Nutrition Surveys," American Journal of Public Health, May 1995; Brazil and Colombia from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; overweight exceeding underweight from Flores, op. cit. note 5.
54. U.N. survey from Flores, op. cit. note 5; China data from Catherine Geissler, "China: The Soya Pork Dilemma," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, May 1999, and from Barry M. Popkin et al., "Body Weight Patterns among the Chinese: Results from the 1989 and 1991 China Health and Nutrition Surveys," American Journal of Public Health, May 1995; Brazil and Colombia from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; overweight exceeding underweight from Flores, op. cit. note 5.
55. U.N. survey from Flores, op. cit. note 5; China data from Catherine Geissler, "China: The Soya Pork Dilemma," Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, May 1999, and from Barry M. Popkin et al., "Body Weight Patterns among the Chinese: Results from the 1989 and 1991 China Health and Nutrition Surveys," American Journal of Public Health, May 1995; Brazil and Colombia from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; overweight exceeding underweight from Flores, op. cit. note 5.
56. Three micronutrients from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5.
57. WHO, "World Health Organization Sets Out to Eliminate Iodine Deficiency Disorder," press release, 2 pages (Geneva: 25 May 1999); Vitamin A from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5.
58. WHO, "World Health Organization Sets Out to Eliminate Iodine Deficiency Disorder," press release, 2 pages (Geneva: 25 May 1999); Vitamin A from UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5.
59. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Flores, op. cit. note 5.
60. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Flores, op. cit. note 5.
61. Exclusive breast-feeding in Latin America from ibid.; UNICEF recommendation from Ted Greiner, Section for International Maternal and Child Health, Uppsala University, Sweden, e-mail to authors, 21 October 1999; exclusive breast-feeding in North America from Alan Ryan, Ross Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Inc., Cleveland, OH, fax to authors, 26 October 1999.
62. Exclusive breast-feeding in Latin America from ibid.; UNICEF recommendation from Ted Greiner, Section for International Maternal and Child Health, Uppsala University, Sweden, e-mail to authors, 21 October 1999; exclusive breast-feeding in North America from Alan Ryan, Ross Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Inc., Cleveland, OH, fax to authors, 26 October 1999.
63. Exclusive breast-feeding in Latin America from ibid.; UNICEF recommendation from Ted Greiner, Section for International Maternal and Child Health, Uppsala University, Sweden, e-mail to authors, 21 October 1999; exclusive breast-feeding in North America from Alan Ryan, Ross Products Division, Abbott Laboratories, Inc., Cleveland, OH, fax to authors, 26 October 1999.
64. Industrial-nation calorie breakdown from World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR), Food, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective (Washington, DC: AICR, 1997); refined grains from Judy Putnam and Shirley Gerrior, "Trends in the U.S. Food Supply, 1970-97," in Frazao, ed., op. cit. note 10; french fries and potato chips from Linda Scott Kantor, "A Comparison of the U.S. Food Supply with the Food Guide Pyramid Recommendations," in Frazao, op. cit. this note.
65. Industrial-nation calorie breakdown from World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR), Food, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective (Washington, DC: AICR, 1997); refined grains from Judy Putnam and Shirley Gerrior, "Trends in the U.S. Food Supply, 1970-97," in Frazao, ed., op. cit. note 10; french fries and potato chips from Linda Scott Kantor, "A Comparison of the U.S. Food Supply with the Food Guide Pyramid Recommendations," in Frazao, op. cit. this note.
66. Industrial-nation calorie breakdown from World Cancer Research Fund and the American Institute for Cancer Research (WCRF/AICR), Food, Nutrition, and the Prevention of Cancer: A Global Perspective (Washington, DC: AICR, 1997); refined grains from Judy Putnam and Shirley Gerrior, "Trends in the U.S. Food Supply, 1970-97," in Frazao, ed., op. cit. note 10; french fries and potato chips from Linda Scott Kantor, "A Comparison of the U.S. Food Supply with the Food Guide Pyramid Recommendations," in Frazao, op. cit. this note.
67. Americans from Dirk Johnson, "Snacking Today: Any Time and Anywhere," New York Times, 30 July 1999; U.K. from John Willman, "Appetite for Snack Food Soars to $3.6 Billion a Year," Financial Times, 22 September 1999.
68. Americans from Dirk Johnson, "Snacking Today: Any Time and Anywhere," New York Times, 30 July 1999; U.K. from John Willman, "Appetite for Snack Food Soars to $3.6 Billion a Year," Financial Times, 22 September 1999.
69. Home-made meals from Dave Jenkins, NPD Group, Inc., e-mail to Brian Halweil, 23 August 1999; McKinsey & Co. consumer behavior study cited in Dave Gussow, "Will Tomorrow's Consumers Really Buy House Brimming With Smart Appliances?" Environmental News Network, 23 June 1999.
70. Home-made meals from Dave Jenkins, NPD Group, Inc., e-mail to Brian Halweil, 23 August 1999; McKinsey & Co. consumer behavior study cited in Dave Gussow, "Will Tomorrow's Consumers Really Buy House Brimming With Smart Appliances?" Environmental News Network, 23 June 1999.
71. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); percent of all malnourished children from Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? FCND Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998); Lisa C. Smith and Lawrence Haddad, "Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: A Cross-Country Analysis," FCND Discussion Paper No. 60 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, April 1999); UNICEF, State of the World's Children (New York: 1998).
72. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); percent of all malnourished children from Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? FCND Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998); Lisa C. Smith and Lawrence Haddad, "Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: A Cross-Country Analysis," FCND Discussion Paper No. 60 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, April 1999); UNICEF, State of the World's Children (New York: 1998).
73. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); percent of all malnourished children from Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? FCND Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998); Lisa C. Smith and Lawrence Haddad, "Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: A Cross-Country Analysis," FCND Discussion Paper No. 60 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, April 1999); UNICEF, State of the World's Children (New York: 1998).
74. Amartya Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (New York: Oxford University Press, 1981); percent of all malnourished children from Lisa Smith, Can FAO's Measure of Chronic Undernourishment Be Strengthened? FCND Discussion Paper No. 44 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1998); Lisa C. Smith and Lawrence Haddad, "Explaining Child Malnutrition in Developing Countries: A Cross-Country Analysis," FCND Discussion Paper No. 60 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, April 1999); UNICEF, State of the World's Children (New York: 1998).
75. FAO, op. cit. note 7.
76. Ibid.
77. Ross M. Welch, Gerald F. Combs, Jr., and John M. Duxbury, "Toward a 'Greener' Revolution," Issues in Science and Technology, fall 1997; grain and pulse consumption in South Asia from FAO, FAOSTAT, electronic database, 〈apps.fao.org〉, updated 9 December 1999.
78. Ross M. Welch, Gerald F. Combs, Jr., and John M. Duxbury, "Toward a 'Greener' Revolution," Issues in Science and Technology, fall 1997; grain and pulse consumption in South Asia from FAO, FAOSTAT, electronic database, 〈apps.fao.org〉, updated 9 December 1999.
79. Gordon R. Conway and Edward B. Barbier, After the Green Revolution: Sustainable Agriculture for Development (London: Earthscan Publications, 1990) Mexico from Susan George, "Latin America: Going to Extremes," in Douglas H. Boucher, The Paradox of Plenty: Hunger in a Bountiful World (Oakland, CA: Food First Books, 1999).
80. Gordon R. Conway and Edward B. Barbier, After the Green Revolution: Sustainable Agriculture for Development (London: Earthscan Publications, 1990) Mexico from Susan George, "Latin America: Going to Extremes," in Douglas H. Boucher, The Paradox of Plenty: Hunger in a Bountiful World (Oakland, CA: Food First Books, 1999).
81. Relationship between land distribution, rural poverty, and hunger from Klaus Deininger and Lin Squire, "New Ways of Looking at Old Issues: Inequality and Growth," Journal of Development Economics, December 1998, and from Daniel Maxwell and Keith Wiebe, "Land Tenure and Food Security: A Review of Concepts, Evidence, and Methods," LTC Research Paper 129 (Madison: Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, January 1998); India from Timothy Besley and Robin Burgess, "Land Reform, Poverty Reduction and Growth: Evidence from India," Research Report, Department of Economics, London School of Economics, 8 July 1998.
82. Relationship between land distribution, rural poverty, and hunger from Klaus Deininger and Lin Squire, "New Ways of Looking at Old Issues: Inequality and Growth," Journal of Development Economics, December 1998, and from Daniel Maxwell and Keith Wiebe, "Land Tenure and Food Security: A Review of Concepts, Evidence, and Methods," LTC Research Paper 129 (Madison: Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, January 1998); India from Timothy Besley and Robin Burgess, "Land Reform, Poverty Reduction and Growth: Evidence from India," Research Report, Department of Economics, London School of Economics, 8 July 1998.
83. Relationship between land distribution, rural poverty, and hunger from Klaus Deininger and Lin Squire, "New Ways of Looking at Old Issues: Inequality and Growth," Journal of Development Economics, December 1998, and from Daniel Maxwell and Keith Wiebe, "Land Tenure and Food Security: A Review of Concepts, Evidence, and Methods," LTC Research Paper 129 (Madison: Land Tenure Center, University of Wisconsin, January 1998); India from Timothy Besley and Robin Burgess, "Land Reform, Poverty Reduction and Growth: Evidence from India," Research Report, Department of Economics, London School of Economics, 8 July 1998.
84. Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly, and Frances Stewart eds., Adjustment with a Human Face (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Lance Taylor and Ute Pieper, Reconciling Economic Reform and Sustainable Human Development: Social Consequences of Neo-Liberalism, U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), Office of Development Studies, Discussion Paper Series (UNDP: New York, 1996); Nancy Alexander, "Remaking the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund," in Hunger in a Global Economy (Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1997); The All-Too-Visible Hand: A Five-Country Look at the Long and Destructive Reach of the IMF (Washington, DC: Development Gap, April 1999).
85. Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly, and Frances Stewart eds., Adjustment with a Human Face (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Lance Taylor and Ute Pieper, Reconciling Economic Reform and Sustainable Human Development: Social Consequences of Neo-Liberalism, U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), Office of Development Studies, Discussion Paper Series (UNDP: New York, 1996); Nancy Alexander, "Remaking the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund," in Hunger in a Global Economy (Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1997); The All-Too-Visible Hand: A Five-Country Look at the Long and Destructive Reach of the IMF (Washington, DC: Development Gap, April 1999).
86. Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly, and Frances Stewart eds., Adjustment with a Human Face (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Lance Taylor and Ute Pieper, Reconciling Economic Reform and Sustainable Human Development: Social Consequences of Neo-Liberalism, U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), Office of Development Studies, Discussion Paper Series (UNDP: New York, 1996); Nancy Alexander, "Remaking the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund," in Hunger in a Global Economy (Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1997); The All-Too-Visible Hand: A Five-Country Look at the Long and Destructive Reach of the IMF (Washington, DC: Development Gap, April 1999).
87. Giovanni Andrea Cornia, Richard Jolly, and Frances Stewart eds., Adjustment with a Human Face (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1988); Lance Taylor and Ute Pieper, Reconciling Economic Reform and Sustainable Human Development: Social Consequences of Neo-Liberalism, U.N. Development Programme (UNDP), Office of Development Studies, Discussion Paper Series (UNDP: New York, 1996); Nancy Alexander, "Remaking the World Bank and the International Monetary Fund," in Hunger in a Global Economy (Silver Spring, MD: Bread for the World Institute, 1997); The All-Too-Visible Hand: A Five-Country Look at the Long and Destructive Reach of the IMF (Washington, DC: Development Gap, April 1999).
88. Chile, Paraguay, and Guatemala from Maxwell and Wiebe, op. cit. note 35; benefits of food exports from Peter Uvin, The International Organization of Hunger (London: Kegan Paul International, 1994) , from Lori Ann Thrupp, Bittersweet Harvest for Global Supermarkets: Challenges in Latin America's Agricultural Export Boom (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI), August 1995), from Walden Bello, "The WTO's Big Losers," Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 1999, and from Frances Moore Lappé et al., World Hunger: Twelve Myths (San Francisco: Grove Press, 1998).
89. Chile, Paraguay, and Guatemala from Maxwell and Wiebe, op. cit. note 35; benefits of food exports from Peter Uvin, The International Organization of Hunger (London: Kegan Paul International, 1994) , from Lori Ann Thrupp, Bittersweet Harvest for Global Supermarkets: Challenges in Latin America's Agricultural Export Boom (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI), August 1995), from Walden Bello, "The WTO's Big Losers," Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 1999, and from Frances Moore Lappé et al., World Hunger: Twelve Myths (San Francisco: Grove Press, 1998).
90. Chile, Paraguay, and Guatemala from Maxwell and Wiebe, op. cit. note 35; benefits of food exports from Peter Uvin, The International Organization of Hunger (London: Kegan Paul International, 1994) , from Lori Ann Thrupp, Bittersweet Harvest for Global Supermarkets: Challenges in Latin America's Agricultural Export Boom (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI), August 1995), from Walden Bello, "The WTO's Big Losers," Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 1999, and from Frances Moore Lappé et al., World Hunger: Twelve Myths (San Francisco: Grove Press, 1998).
91. Chile, Paraguay, and Guatemala from Maxwell and Wiebe, op. cit. note 35; benefits of food exports from Peter Uvin, The International Organization of Hunger (London: Kegan Paul International, 1994) , from Lori Ann Thrupp, Bittersweet Harvest for Global Supermarkets: Challenges in Latin America's Agricultural Export Boom (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI), August 1995), from Walden Bello, "The WTO's Big Losers," Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 1999, and from Frances Moore Lappé et al., World Hunger: Twelve Myths (San Francisco: Grove Press, 1998).
92. Chile, Paraguay, and Guatemala from Maxwell and Wiebe, op. cit. note 35; benefits of food exports from Peter Uvin, The International Organization of Hunger (London: Kegan Paul International, 1994) , from Lori Ann Thrupp, Bittersweet Harvest for Global Supermarkets: Challenges in Latin America's Agricultural Export Boom (Washington, DC: World Resources Institute (WRI), August 1995), from Walden Bello, "The WTO's Big Losers," Far Eastern Economic Review, 24 June 1999, and from Frances Moore Lappé et al., World Hunger: Twelve Myths (San Francisco: Grove Press, 1998).
93. Kevin Watkins, "Agricultural Trade and Food Security" (London: Oxfam, May 1996); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "An Overview of the Future Global Food Situation," prepared for the Millennial Symposium on "Feeding a Planet," sponsored by and held at the Cosmos Club, Washington, DC, 12 February 1999; Sophia Murphy, "Trade and Food Security: An Assessment of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture" (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1999); transitory effects from Marc Cohen, IFPRI, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
94. Kevin Watkins, "Agricultural Trade and Food Security" (London: Oxfam, May 1996); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "An Overview of the Future Global Food Situation," prepared for the Millennial Symposium on "Feeding a Planet," sponsored by and held at the Cosmos Club, Washington, DC, 12 February 1999; Sophia Murphy, "Trade and Food Security: An Assessment of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture" (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1999); transitory effects from Marc Cohen, IFPRI, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
95. Kevin Watkins, "Agricultural Trade and Food Security" (London: Oxfam, May 1996); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "An Overview of the Future Global Food Situation," prepared for the Millennial Symposium on "Feeding a Planet," sponsored by and held at the Cosmos Club, Washington, DC, 12 February 1999; Sophia Murphy, "Trade and Food Security: An Assessment of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture" (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1999); transitory effects from Marc Cohen, IFPRI, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
96. Kevin Watkins, "Agricultural Trade and Food Security" (London: Oxfam, May 1996); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "An Overview of the Future Global Food Situation," prepared for the Millennial Symposium on "Feeding a Planet," sponsored by and held at the Cosmos Club, Washington, DC, 12 February 1999; Sophia Murphy, "Trade and Food Security: An Assessment of the Uruguay Round Agreement on Agriculture" (London: Catholic Institute for International Relations, 1999); transitory effects from Marc Cohen, IFPRI, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
97. Karen Lehman, "The Great Train Robbery of 1996" (Minneapolis, MN: Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, 25 June 1996); Watkins, op. cit. note 38.
98. Karen Lehman, "The Great Train Robbery of 1996" (Minneapolis, MN: Institute for Agriculture and Trade Policy, 25 June 1996); Watkins, op. cit. note 38.
99. Marc J. Cohen and Torsten Feldbruegge, Acute Nutrition Crises and Violent Conflict (Washington, DC: IFPRI, forthcoming).
100. Table 4 adapted from Barry M. Popkin, Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, "Urbanization, Lifestyle Changes, and the Nutrition Transition," unpublished manuscript, 11 August 1998.
101. Marion Nestle et al., "Behavioral and Social Influences on Food Choice," Nutrition Reviews, May 1998; B.J. Rolls and E.A. Bell, "Intake of Fat and Carbohydrate: Role of Energy Density," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, April 1999; J.E. Blundell and J.I. MacDiarmid, "Fat as a Risk Factor for Overconsumption: Satiation, Satiety, and Patterns of Eating," Journal of American Dietetic Association, July 1997.
102. Marion Nestle et al., "Behavioral and Social Influences on Food Choice," Nutrition Reviews, May 1998; B.J. Rolls and E.A. Bell, "Intake of Fat and Carbohydrate: Role of Energy Density," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, April 1999; J.E. Blundell and J.I. MacDiarmid, "Fat as a Risk Factor for Overconsumption: Satiation, Satiety, and Patterns of Eating," Journal of American Dietetic Association, July 1997.
103. Marion Nestle et al., "Behavioral and Social Influences on Food Choice," Nutrition Reviews, May 1998; B.J. Rolls and E.A. Bell, "Intake of Fat and Carbohydrate: Role of Energy Density," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition, April 1999; J.E. Blundell and J.I. MacDiarmid, "Fat as a Risk Factor for Overconsumption: Satiation, Satiety, and Patterns of Eating," Journal of American Dietetic Association, July 1997.
104. Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition and Its Health Implications in Lower-Income Countries," Public Health Nutrition, January 1998.
105. Adam Drewnowski and Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition: New Trends in the Global Diet," Nutrition Reviews, February 1997; Geissler, op. cit. note 22.
106. Adam Drewnowski and Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition: New Trends in the Global Diet," Nutrition Reviews, February 1997; Geissler, op. cit. note 22.
107. Share of Chinese households from X. Guo, T.A. Mroz, B.M. Popkin, and F. Zhai, "Structural Changes in the Impact of Income on Food Consumption in China, 1989-93," Economic Development and Cultural Change (in press); simultaneous under-and overweight from C.M. Doak, L. Adair, C. Monteiro, and B.M. Popkin, "Overweight and Underweight Co-exists in Brazil, China, and Russia," University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, unpublished manuscript, 1999. The authors note that the explanation for this co-existence within households is probably related to gender bias in food distribution and/or different levels of energy expenditure, though additional research is required.
108. Share of Chinese households from X. Guo, T.A. Mroz, B.M. Popkin, and F. Zhai, "Structural Changes in the Impact of Income on Food Consumption in China, 1989-93," Economic Development and Cultural Change (in press); simultaneous under-and overweight from C.M. Doak, L. Adair, C. Monteiro, and B.M. Popkin, "Overweight and Underweight Co-exists in Brazil, China, and Russia," University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, unpublished manuscript, 1999. The authors note that the explanation for this co-existence within households is probably related to gender bias in food distribution and/or different levels of energy expenditure, though additional research is required.
109. Income level required for a given diet, and Japan and China comparison, from Drewnowski and Popkin, op. cit. note 44; Figure 1 from USDA, Production, Supply, and Distribution, electronic database, Washington, DC, updated December 1999.
110. Income level required for a given diet, and Japan and China comparison, from Drewnowski and Popkin, op. cit. note 44; Figure 1 from USDA, Production, Supply, and Distribution, electronic database, Washington, DC, updated December 1999.
111. Urban share of global population from Molly O'Meara, "Exploring a New Vision for Cities," in Lester Brown et al., State of the World 1999 (New York: W.W. Norton & Company, 1999).
112. Drewnowski and Popkin, op. cit. note 44; Marie T. Ruel et al., "Urban Challenges to Food and Nutrition Security: A Review of Food Security, Health, and Caregiving in the Cities," FCND Discussion Paper No. 51, IFPRI, (Washington, DC: October 1998).
113. Drewnowski and Popkin, op. cit. note 44; Marie T. Ruel et al., "Urban Challenges to Food and Nutrition Security: A Review of Food Security, Health, and Caregiving in the Cities," FCND Discussion Paper No. 51, IFPRI, (Washington, DC: October 1998).
114. Barry M. Popkin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, discussion with authors, 5 September 1999; Henry Chu, "Now Meat Is Raising Red Flags in China," Los Angeles Times, 27 July 1998.
115. Barry M. Popkin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, discussion with authors, 5 September 1999; Henry Chu, "Now Meat Is Raising Red Flags in China," Los Angeles Times, 27 July 1998.
116. Ruel et al., op. cit. note 48; rise of processed foods in industrial nations from J. Mauron, "Effects of Processed Foods on Food Consumption Patterns in Industrialized Countries," Bibliographia Nutrition and Dieta, February 1989.
117. Ruel et al., op. cit. note 48; rise of processed foods in industrial nations from J. Mauron, "Effects of Processed Foods on Food Consumption Patterns in Industrialized Countries," Bibliographia Nutrition and Dieta, February 1989.
118. Popkin, op. cit. note 43; share of population engaged in agriculture from FAO, op. cit. note 33.
119. Popkin, op. cit. note 43; share of population engaged in agriculture from FAO, op. cit. note 33.
120. Chinese overweight levels from Geissler, op. cit. note 22; Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
121. Chinese overweight levels from Geissler, op. cit. note 22; Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
122. Countertrend from Carlos A. Monteiro et al., "Shifting Obesity Trends in Brazil," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press), from Popkin, op. cit. note 43, and from Soowon Kim, Soojae Moon, and Barry M. Popkin,
123. Countertrend from Carlos A. Monteiro et al., "Shifting Obesity Trends in Brazil," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press), from Popkin, op. cit. note 43, and from Soowon Kim, Soojae Moon, and Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition in South Korea," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press); ethnic obesity from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
124. Countertrend from Carlos A. Monteiro et al., "Shifting Obesity Trends in Brazil," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press), from Popkin, op. cit. note 43, and from Soowon Kim, Soojae Moon, and Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition in South Korea," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press); ethnic obesity from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
125. Countertrend from Carlos A. Monteiro et al., "Shifting Obesity Trends in Brazil," European Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press), from Popkin, op. cit. note 43, and from Soowon Kim, Soojae Moon, and Barry M. Popkin, "The Nutrition Transition in South Korea," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition (in press); ethnic obesity from Flegal et al., op. cit. note 5.
126. Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, op. cit. note 10; Goeff Tansey and Tony Worsley, The Food System: A Guide (London: Earthscan Publications, 1995).
127. Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, op. cit. note 10; Goeff Tansey and Tony Worsley, The Food System: A Guide (London: Earthscan Publications, 1995).
128. Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, op. cit. note 10; Goeff Tansey and Tony Worsley, The Food System: A Guide (London: Earthscan Publications, 1995).
129. Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Austria, Belgium, and France from NTC Publications, op. cit. note 10; Goeff Tansey and Tony Worsley, The Food System: A Guide (London: Earthscan Publications, 1995).
130. Ad spending and sales from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; infant formula from Naomi Baumslag and Dia L. Michels, Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding (Westport, CT.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nutrition: Interaction of Food, Health, and Care, Sectoral and Theme Policy Document of Development Cooperation, No. 10 (The Hague: Government of the Netherlands, September 1998).
131. Ad spending and sales from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; infant formula from Naomi Baumslag and Dia L. Michels, Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding (Westport, CT.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nutrition: Interaction of Food, Health, and Care, Sectoral and Theme Policy Document of Development Cooperation, No. 10 (The Hague: Government of the Netherlands, September 1998).
132. Ad spending and sales from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; infant formula from Naomi Baumslag and Dia L. Michels, Milk, Money, and Madness: The Culture and Politics of Breastfeeding (Westport, CT.: Bergin and Garvey, 1995) and Ministry of Foreign Affairs, Nutrition: Interaction of Food, Health, and Care, Sectoral and Theme Policy Document of Development Cooperation, No. 10 (The Hague: Government of the Netherlands, September 1998).
133. Consumers International, op. cit. note 10; U.S. fast-food ads from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; McDonald's and Coca-Cola from Advertising Age, 〈www.adage.com/dataplace〉, viewed 5 October 1999.
134. Consumers International, op. cit. note 10; U.S. fast-food ads from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; McDonald's and Coca-Cola from Advertising Age, 〈www.adage.com/dataplace〉, viewed 5 October 1999.
135. Consumers International, op. cit. note 10; U.S. fast-food ads from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; McDonald's and Coca-Cola from Advertising Age, 〈www.adage.com/dataplace〉, viewed 5 October 1999.
136. Targeting of children and general studies from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; study on fourth-and fifth-graders from Victor C. Strasburger, Adolescents and the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 1995) ; life-long craving from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42, and from L.L. Birch, "Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in the First Years of Life," Proceedings of Nutrition Society, November 1998.
137. Targeting of children and general studies from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; study on fourth-and fifth-graders from Victor C. Strasburger, Adolescents and the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 1995) ; life-long craving from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42, and from L.L. Birch, "Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in the First Years of Life," Proceedings of Nutrition Society, November 1998.
138. Targeting of children and general studies from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; study on fourth-and fifth-graders from Victor C. Strasburger, Adolescents and the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 1995) ; life-long craving from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42, and from L.L. Birch, "Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in the First Years of Life," Proceedings of Nutrition Society, November 1998.
139. Targeting of children and general studies from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42; study on fourth-and fifth-graders from Victor C. Strasburger, Adolescents and the Media (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications 1995) ; life-long craving from Nestle et al., op. cit. note 42, and from L.L. Birch, "Development of Food Acceptance Patterns in the First Years of Life," Proceedings of Nutrition Society, November 1998.
140. Tansey and Worsley, op. cit. note 54; John Connor, Purdue University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 23 August 1999.
141. Tansey and Worsley, op. cit. note 54; John Connor, Purdue University, discussion with Brian Halweil, 23 August 1999.
142. Michael Jacobson, Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), discussion with Brian Halweil, 8 September 1999; Putnam and Gerrior, op. cit. note 27.
143. Michael Jacobson, Center for Science in the Public Interest (CSPI), discussion with Brian Halweil, 8 September 1999; Putnam and Gerrior, op. cit. note 27.
144. Manufacturer's promotions from Tansey and Worsley, op. cit. note 54; Pepsi from Constance L. Hayes, "An Aisle Unto Itself?" New York Times, 31 July 1999; percent from Constance L. Hayes, discussion with Brian Halweil, 30 September 1999.
145. Manufacturer's promotions from Tansey and Worsley, op. cit. note 54; Pepsi from Constance L. Hayes, "An Aisle Unto Itself?" New York Times, 31 July 1999; percent from Constance L. Hayes, discussion with Brian Halweil, 30 September 1999.
146. Manufacturer's promotions from Tansey and Worsley, op. cit. note 54; Pepsi from Constance L. Hayes, "An Aisle Unto Itself?" New York Times, 31 July 1999; 10 percent from Constance L. Hayes, discussion with Brian Halweil, 30 September 1999.
147. Anna White, "The Cola-ized Classroom," Multinational Monitor, January/February 1999; franchises in American schools from Claire Hope Cummings, "Entertainment Food," The Ecologist, January/February 1999.
148. Anna White, "The Cola-ized Classroom," Multinational Monitor, January/February 1999; franchises in American schools from Claire Hope Cummings, "Entertainment Food," The Ecologist, January/February 1999.
149. Michael F. Jacobson, "Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health" (Washington, DC: CSPI, October 1998); Brian Wansink, "Can Package Size Accelerate Usage Volume?" Journal of Marketing, July 1996; Lisa R. Young and Marion Nestle, "Variation in Perceptions of a 'Medium' Food Portion: Implications for Dietary Guidance," Journal of the American Dietetic Association, April 1998.
150. Michael F. Jacobson, "Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health" (Washington, DC: CSPI, October 1998); Brian Wansink, "Can Package Size Accelerate Usage Volume?" Journal of Marketing, July 1996; Lisa R. Young and Marion Nestle, "Variation in Perceptions of a 'Medium' Food Portion: Implications for Dietary Guidance," Journal of the American Dietetic Association, April 1998.
151. Michael F. Jacobson, "Liquid Candy: How Soft Drinks are Harming Americans' Health" (Washington, DC: CSPI, October 1998); Brian Wansink, "Can Package Size Accelerate Usage Volume?" Journal of Marketing, July 1996; Lisa R. Young and Marion Nestle, "Variation in Perceptions of a 'Medium' Food Portion: Implications for Dietary Guidance," Journal of the American Dietetic Association, April 1998.
152. Marion Nestle, "Food Lobbies, the Food Pyramid, and US Nutrition Policy," International Journal of Health Services, March 1993; Dairy Council from Sue Markgraf, Dairy Management Inc., discussion with Brian Halweil, 23 September 1999, and from Vicki Urcuyo, Food and Nutrition Service, USDA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
153. Marion Nestle, "Food Lobbies, the Food Pyramid, and US Nutrition Policy," International Journal of Health Services, March 1993; Dairy Council from Sue Markgraf, Dairy Management Inc., discussion with Brian Halweil, 23 September 1999, and from Vicki Urcuyo, Food and Nutrition Service, USDA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
154. Marion Nestle, "Food Lobbies, the Food Pyramid, and US Nutrition Policy," International Journal of Health Services, March 1993; Dairy Council from Sue Markgraf, Dairy Management Inc., discussion with Brian Halweil, 23 September 1999, and from Vicki Urcuyo, Food and Nutrition Service, USDA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 12 December 1999.
155. Tim Lang, Professor of Food Policy, Thames Valley University, London, Michael Heasman and Jillian Pitt, "Food, Globalisation and a New Public Health Agenda," unpublished manuscript, July 1999.
156. Tim Lang, Professor of Food Policy, Thames Valley University, London, Michael Heasman and Jillian Pitt, "Food, Globalisation and a New Public Health Agenda," unpublished manuscript, July 1999.
157. Fast-food ads and nutrition education from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Kellogg's from Michael F. Jacobson, CSPI, Washington, DC, discussion with Brian Halweil, 26 October 1999; Kelly Brownell quote from Bonnie Liebman, "The Pressure to Eat," Nutrition Action Healthletter (CSPI), July/August 1998; Coca-Cola Company, 1997 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1998).
158. Fast-food ads and nutrition education from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Kellogg's from Michael F. Jacobson, CSPI, Washington, DC, discussion with Brian Halweil, 26 October 1999; Kelly Brownell quote from Bonnie Liebman, "The Pressure to Eat," Nutrition Action Healthletter (CSPI), July/August 1998; Coca-Cola Company, 1997 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1998).
159. Fast-food ads and nutrition education from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Kellogg's from Michael F. Jacobson, CSPI, Washington, DC, discussion with Brian Halweil, 26 October 1999; Kelly Brownell quote from Bonnie Liebman, "The Pressure to Eat," Nutrition Action Healthletter (CSPI), July/August 1998; Coca-Cola Company, 1997 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1998).
160. Fast-food ads and nutrition education from Gallo, op. cit. note 10; Kellogg's from Michael F. Jacobson, CSPI, Washington, DC, discussion with Brian Halweil, 26 October 1999; Kelly Brownell quote from Bonnie Liebman, "The Pressure to Eat," Nutrition Action Healthletter (CSPI), July/August 1998; Coca-Cola Company, 1997 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1998).
161. Coca-Cola Company, 1998 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1999); four of five McDonald's from Brian Breuhaus, "Risky Business?" Restaurant Business, 1 November 1998; Steven A. Neff et al., Globalization of the Processed Foods Market (Washington, DC: USDA, ERS, October 1996).
162. Coca-Cola Company, 1998 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1999); four of five McDonald's from Brian Breuhaus, "Risky Business?" Restaurant Business, 1 November 1998; Steven A. Neff et al., Globalization of the Processed Foods Market (Washington, DC: USDA, ERS, October 1996).
163. Coca-Cola Company, 1998 Annual Report (Atlanta: 1999); four of five McDonald's from Brian Breuhaus, "Risky Business?" Restaurant Business, 1 November 1998; Steven A. Neff et al., Globalization of the Processed Foods Market (Washington, DC: USDA, ERS, October 1996).
164. Table 5 based on the following: cancer from WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; coronary heart disease from A.M. Wolf and G.A. Colditz, "Current Estimates of the Economic Costs of Obesity in the United States," Obesity Research, March 1998; adult-onset (Type II) diabetes from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; childhood blindness from Dr. Alfred Sommer, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, discussion with Brian Halweil, 2 November 1999; mental retardation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note. 55, and from WHO, World Health Report, op. cit. note 5.
165. Table 5 based on the following: cancer from WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; coronary heart disease from A.M. Wolf and G.A. Colditz, "Current Estimates of the Economic Costs of Obesity in the United States," Obesity Research, March 1998; adult-onset (Type II) diabetes from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; childhood blindness from Dr. Alfred Sommer, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, discussion with Brian Halweil, 2 November 1999; mental retardation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note. 55, and from WHO, World Health Report, op. cit. note 5.
166. Table 5 based on the following: cancer from WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; coronary heart disease from A.M. Wolf and G.A. Colditz, "Current Estimates of the Economic Costs of Obesity in the United States," Obesity Research, March 1998; adult-onset (Type II) diabetes from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; childhood blindness from Dr. Alfred Sommer, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, discussion with Brian Halweil, 2 November 1999; mental retardation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note. 55, and from WHO, World Health Report, op. cit. note 5.
167. Table 5 based on the following: cancer from WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; coronary heart disease from A.M. Wolf and G.A. Colditz, "Current Estimates of the Economic Costs of Obesity in the United States," Obesity Research, March 1998; adult-onset (Type II) diabetes from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; childhood blindness from Dr. Alfred Sommer, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, discussion with Brian Halweil, 2 November 1999; mental retardation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note. 55, and from WHO, World Health Report, op. cit. note 5.
168. Table 5 based on the following: cancer from WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; coronary heart disease from A.M. Wolf and G.A. Colditz, "Current Estimates of the Economic Costs of Obesity in the United States," Obesity Research, March 1998; adult-onset (Type II) diabetes from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; childhood blindness from Dr. Alfred Sommer, School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, discussion with Brian Halweil, 2 November 1999; mental retardation from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note. 55, and from WHO, World Health Report, op. cit. note 5.
169. Mason, op. cit. note 6; John Mason notes that the 22 percent for hunger and 18 percent for micronutrient deficiencies cannot simply be added, due to overlap in the population affected, as well as possible synergies between the two conditions; original study is Murray and Lopez, eds., op. cit. note 6. The original study uses the term Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY), and defines one DALY as "one lost year of healthy life"; Dr. Lopez's estimate from his discussion with Brian Halweil, op. cit. note 6.
170. Mason, op. cit. note 6; John Mason notes that the 22 percent for hunger and 18 percent for micronutrient deficiencies cannot simply be added, due to overlap in the population affected, as well as possible synergies between the two conditions; original study is Murray and Lopez, eds., op. cit. note 6. The original study uses the term Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY), and defines one DALY as "one lost year of healthy life"; Dr. Lopez's estimate from his discussion with Brian Halweil, op. cit. note 6.
171. Mason, op. cit. note 6; John Mason notes that the 22 percent for hunger and 18 percent for micronutrient deficiencies cannot simply be added, due to overlap in the population affected, as well as possible synergies between the two conditions; original study is Murray and Lopez, eds., op. cit. note 6. The original study uses the term Disability-Adjusted Life Year (DALY), and defines one DALY as "one lost year of healthy life"; Dr. Lopez's estimate from his discussion with Brian Halweil, op. cit. note 6.
172. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5.
173. D.J.P. Barker, Mothers, Babies, and Disease in Later Life (London: British Medical Journal Publishing, 1994).
174. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Barker quoted in Alan Berg, "Furthermore. . . ," New and Noteworthy in Nutrition (World Bank), 12 June 1999; percent from Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 5 October 1999.
175. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Barker quoted in Alan Berg, "Furthermore. . . ," New and Noteworthy in Nutrition (World Bank), 12 June 1999; percent from Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 5 October 1999.
176. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Barker quoted in Alan Berg, "Furthermore. . . ," New and Noteworthy in Nutrition (World Bank), 12 June 1999; 54 percent from Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 5 October 1999.
177. Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note 55.
178. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; mental impairment in utero from Rafael Flores, IFPRI, Washington, DC, e-mail to authors, 14 October 1999.
179. UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; mental impairment in utero from Rafael Flores, IFPRI, Washington, DC, e-mail to authors, 14 October 1999.
180. "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 3 April 1998; Mary Murray, "Ads Raise Questions About Milk and Bones," New York Times, 14 September 1999; T. Remer and F. Manz, "Estimation of the Renal Net Acid Excretion by Adults Consuming Diets Containing Variable Amounts of Protein," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 1994; D. Feskanich et al., "Milk, Dietary Calcium, and Bone Fractures in Women: A 12-Year Prospective Study," American Journal of Public Health, June 1997.
181. "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 3 April 1998; Mary Murray, "Ads Raise Questions About Milk and Bones," New York Times, 14 September 1999; T. Remer and F. Manz, "Estimation of the Renal Net Acid Excretion by Adults Consuming Diets Containing Variable Amounts of Protein," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 1994; D. Feskanich et al., "Milk, Dietary Calcium, and Bone Fractures in Women: A 12-Year Prospective Study," American Journal of Public Health, June 1997.
182. "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 3 April 1998; Mary Murray, "Ads Raise Questions About Milk and Bones," New York Times, 14 September 1999; T. Remer and F. Manz, "Estimation of the Renal Net Acid Excretion by Adults Consuming Diets Containing Variable Amounts of Protein," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 1994; D. Feskanich et al., "Milk, Dietary Calcium, and Bone Fractures in Women: A 12-Year Prospective Study," American Journal of Public Health, June 1997.
183. "Recommendations to Prevent and Control Iron Deficiency in the United States," Morbidity and Mortality Weekly Report, 3 April 1998; Mary Murray, "Ads Raise Questions About Milk and Bones," New York Times, 14 September 1999; T. Remer and F. Manz, "Estimation of the Renal Net Acid Excretion by Adults Consuming Diets Containing Variable Amounts of Protein," American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, June 1994; D. Feskanich et al., "Milk, Dietary Calcium, and Bone Fractures in Women: A 12-Year Prospective Study," American Journal of Public Health, June 1997.
184. Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
185. China Health Survey from J. Chen et al., Diet, Lifestyle, and Mortality in China: a Study of the Characteristics of 65 Chinese Counties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), and from T. Colin Campbell, "Associations of Diet and Disease: A Comprehensive Study of Health Characteristics in China," presented at conference on "Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reforms," Harvard University, Fairbank Center on East Asian Studies, Cambridge, MA, 23-24 May 1997; Framingham Study from Susan Brink, "Unlocking the Heart's Secrets," U.S. News & World Report, 7 September 1998.
186. China Health Survey from J. Chen et al., Diet, Lifestyle, and Mortality in China: a Study of the Characteristics of 65 Chinese Counties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), and from T. Colin Campbell, "Associations of Diet and Disease: A Comprehensive Study of Health Characteristics in China," presented at conference on "Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reforms," Harvard University, Fairbank Center on East Asian Studies, Cambridge, MA, 23-24 May 1997; Framingham Study from Susan Brink, "Unlocking the Heart's Secrets," U.S. News & World Report, 7 September 1998.
187. China Health Survey from J. Chen et al., Diet, Lifestyle, and Mortality in China: a Study of the Characteristics of 65 Chinese Counties (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1990), and from T. Colin Campbell, "Associations of Diet and Disease: A Comprehensive Study of Health Characteristics in China," presented at conference on "Social Consequences of Chinese Economic Reforms," Harvard University, Fairbank Center on East Asian Studies, Cambridge, MA, 23-24 May 1997; Framingham Study from Susan Brink, "Unlocking the Heart's Secrets," U.S. News & World Report, 7 September 1998.
188. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; industrial-nation mortality from WHO, op. cit. note 5, and from U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 〈www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/ deaths.htm〉, viewed 31 January 2000; Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67; WCRF/ AICR, op. cit. note 27.
189. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; industrial-nation mortality from WHO, op. cit. note 5, and from U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 〈www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/ deaths.htm〉, viewed 31 January 2000; Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67; WCRF/ AICR, op. cit. note 27.
190. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; industrial-nation mortality from WHO, op. cit. note 5, and from U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 〈www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/ deaths.htm〉, viewed 31 January 2000; Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67; WCRF/ AICR, op. cit. note 27.
191. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; industrial-nation mortality from WHO, op. cit. note 5, and from U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, National Center for Health Statistics, 〈www.cdc.gov/nchs/fastats/ deaths.htm〉, viewed 31 January 2000; Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67; WCRF/ AICR, op. cit. note 27.
192. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; D.C. Neiman et al., "Influence of Obesity on Immune Function," Journal of American Dietetic Association, March 1999.
193. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; D.C. Neiman et al., "Influence of Obesity on Immune Function," Journal of American Dietetic Association, March 1999.
194. IDF, op. cit. note 8; Ginger Thompson, "With Obesity in Children Rising, More Get Adult Type of Diabetes," New York Times, 14 December 1998; Elizabeth Frazao, "The High Costs of Poor Eating Habits in the United States," in Frazao, op. cit. note 10.
195. IDF, op. cit. note 8; Ginger Thompson, "With Obesity in Children Rising, More Get Adult Type of Diabetes," New York Times, 14 December 1998; Elizabeth Frazao, "The High Costs of Poor Eating Habits in the United States," in Frazao, op. cit. note 10.
196. IDF, op. cit. note 8; Ginger Thompson, "With Obesity in Children Rising, More Get Adult Type of Diabetes," New York Times, 14 December 1998; Elizabeth Frazao, "The High Costs of Poor Eating Habits in the United States," in Frazao, op. cit. note 10.
197. IDF, op. cit. note 8; WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
198. IDF, op. cit. note 8; WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
199. IDF, op. cit. note 8; WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27; Popkin, op. cit. note 43.
200. World Bank study from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note 55; Spain and Indonesia from Beryl Levinger, Nutrition, Health, and Education for All (New York: UNDP, 1994); Philippines study from M.E. Mendez and L.S. Adair, "Severity and Timing of Stunting in Infancy and Performance on IQ and School Achievement Tests in Late Childhood," Journal of Nutrition, August 1999. Equally interesting, this Filipino study found that the effects of stunting were reduced if an improved diet in later childhood allowed the infants' growth to catch up with their peers; however, the previously stunted children still performed more poorly than their peers who were never stunted.
201. World Bank study from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note 55; Spain and Indonesia from Beryl Levinger, Nutrition, Health, and Education for All (New York: UNDP, 1994); Philippines study from M.E. Mendez and L.S. Adair, "Severity and Timing of Stunting in Infancy and Performance on IQ and School Achievement Tests in Late Childhood," Journal of Nutrition, August 1999. Equally interesting, this Filipino study found that the effects of stunting were reduced if an improved diet in later childhood allowed the infants' growth to catch up with their peers; however, the previously stunted children still performed more poorly than their peers who were never stunted.
202. World Bank study from Ministry of Foreign Affairs, op. cit. note 55; Spain and Indonesia from Beryl Levinger, Nutrition, Health, and Education for All (New York: UNDP, 1994); Philippines study from M.E. Mendez and L.S. Adair, "Severity and Timing of Stunting in Infancy and Performance on IQ and School Achievement Tests in Late Childhood," Journal of Nutrition, August 1999. Equally interesting, this Filipino study found that the effects of stunting were reduced if an improved diet in later childhood allowed the infants' growth to catch up with their peers; however, the previously stunted children still performed more poorly than their peers who were never stunted.
203. Horton, op. cit. note 11.
204. Productivity losses ibid.; analysis of Horton's work from Jay Ross and Susan Horton, Economic Consequences of Iron Deficiency (Ottawa, Ontario: Micronutrient Initiative, 1998). Horton's estimates are conservative for several other reasons as well. They are based only on market economic activity, so they do not include socially valuable nonmarket losses. They also assume the maximum possible overlap among deficiencies - a country with 10 million hungry and 3 million iron-deficient persons is assumed to have 10 million malnourished - so estimates of productivity loss are minimums. India from Measham and Chatterjeem, op. cit. note 7.
205. Productivity losses ibid.; analysis of Horton's work from Jay Ross and Susan Horton, Economic Consequences of Iron Deficiency (Ottawa, Ontario: Micronutrient Initiative, 1998). Horton's estimates are conservative for several other reasons as well. They are based only on market economic activity, so they do not include socially valuable nonmarket losses. They also assume the maximum possible overlap among deficiencies - a country with 10 million hungry and 3 million iron-deficient persons is assumed to have 10 million malnourished - so estimates of productivity loss are minimums. India from Measham and Chatterjeem, op. cit. note 7.
206. Productivity losses ibid.; analysis of Horton's work from Jay Ross and Susan Horton, Economic Consequences of Iron Deficiency (Ottawa, Ontario: Micronutrient Initiative, 1998). Horton's estimates are conservative for several other reasons as well. They are based only on market economic activity, so they do not include socially valuable nonmarket losses. They also assume the maximum possible overlap among deficiencies - a country with 10 million hungry and 3 million iron-deficient persons is assumed to have 10 million malnourished - so estimates of productivity loss are minimums. India from Measham and Chatterjeem, op. cit. note 7.
207. U.S. statistics from Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67, and from Anne Wolf, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 1 November 1999; Sweden study from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
208. U.S. statistics from Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67, and from Anne Wolf, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 1 November 1999; Sweden study from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
209. U.S. statistics from Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67, and from Anne Wolf, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA, discussion with Brian Halweil, 1 November 1999; Sweden study from WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
210. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
211. Neal D. Barnard, Andrew Nicholson, and Jo Lil Howard, "The Medical Costs Attributable to Meat Consumption," Preventive Medicine, November 1995.
212. Colditz, op. cit. note 7; $33 billion from Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67.
213. Colditz, op. cit. note 7; $33 billion from Wolf and Colditz, op. cit. note 67.
214. Annual health expenditures per person from Arun Chockalingam and Ignasi Balaguer Vintró, eds., Impending Global Pandemic of Cardiovascular Diseases (Barcelona: Prous Science, 1999).
215. WCRF/AICR, op. cit. note 27.
216. Rodolfo A. Bulatao, The Value of Family Planning Programs in Developing Countries (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1998); WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
217. Rodolfo A. Bulatao, The Value of Family Planning Programs in Developing Countries (Santa Monica, CA: RAND, 1998); WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5.
218. WHO, op. cit. note 24.
219. Table 6 from Horton, op. cit. note 11.
220. F. James Levinson, "Addressing Malnutrition in Africa," Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper No. 13 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 10 October 1999 ; Hanny Friesen, et al., "Protection of Breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea," Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3 (1999); Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) from BFHI News, March/April 1999.
221. F. James Levinson, "Addressing Malnutrition in Africa," Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper No. 13 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 10 October 1999 ; Hanny Friesen, et al., "Protection of Breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea," Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3 (1999); Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) from BFHI News, March/April 1999.
222. F. James Levinson, "Addressing Malnutrition in Africa," Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper No. 13 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 10 October 1999 ; Hanny Friesen, et al., "Protection of Breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea," Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3 (1999); Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) from BFHI News, March/April 1999.
223. F. James Levinson, "Addressing Malnutrition in Africa," Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper No. 13 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 10 October 1999 ; Hanny Friesen, et al., "Protection of Breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea," Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3 (1999); Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) from BFHI News, March/April 1999.
224. F. James Levinson, "Addressing Malnutrition in Africa," Social Dimensions of Adjustment in Sub-Saharan Africa, Working Paper No. 13 (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1991); UN ACC/SCN, op. cit. note 5; Sonya Rabeneck, UN ACC/SCN, e-mail to authors, 10 October 1999 ; Hanny Friesen, et al., "Protection of Breastfeeding in Papua New Guinea," Bulletin of the World Health Organization, vol. 77, no. 3 (1999); Baby-Friendly Hospital Initiative (BFHI) from BFHI News, March/April 1999.
225. Marc J. Cohen and Don Reeves, "Causes of Hunger," 2020 Brief 19 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1995); Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Are Credit and Savings Services Effective Against Hunger and Malnutrition? - A Literature Review," Research Paper No. 1 (Davis, CA: Freedom From Hunger, February 1996); IFPRI study from Smith and Haddad, op. cit. note 30.
226. Marc J. Cohen and Don Reeves, "Causes of Hunger," 2020 Brief 19 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1995); Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Are Credit and Savings Services Effective Against Hunger and Malnutrition? - A Literature Review," Research Paper No. 1 (Davis, CA: Freedom From Hunger, February 1996); IFPRI study from Smith and Haddad, op. cit. note 30.
227. Marc J. Cohen and Don Reeves, "Causes of Hunger," 2020 Brief 19 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, May 1995); Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Are Credit and Savings Services Effective Against Hunger and Malnutrition? - A Literature Review," Research Paper No. 1 (Davis, CA: Freedom From Hunger, February 1996); IFPRI study from Smith and Haddad, op. cit. note 30.
228. Kerala from C. R. Soman, Professor of Nutrition, College of Medicine, University of Kerala, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 29 October 1999; Cohen and Reeves, op. cit. note 94.
229. Kerala from C. R. Soman, Professor of Nutrition, College of Medicine, University of Kerala, e-mail to Brian Halweil, 29 October 1999; Cohen and Reeves, op. cit. note 94.
230. Dotres, op. ct. note 9.
231. Cohen and Reeves, op. cit. note 94; Nancy Birdsall, "Macroeconomic Reform: Its Impact on Poverty and Hunger," in Ismail Serageldin and Pierre Landell-Mills, eds., Overcoming Global Hunger (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "Aid to Developing-Country Agriculture: Investing in Poverty Reduction and New Export Opportunities," 2020 Brief 56 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, October 1998).
232. Cohen and Reeves, op. cit. note 94; Nancy Birdsall, "Macroeconomic Reform: Its Impact on Poverty and Hunger," in Ismail Serageldin and Pierre Landell-Mills, eds., Overcoming Global Hunger (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "Aid to Developing-Country Agriculture: Investing in Poverty Reduction and New Export Opportunities," 2020 Brief 56 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, October 1998).
233. Cohen and Reeves, op. cit. note 94; Nancy Birdsall, "Macroeconomic Reform: Its Impact on Poverty and Hunger," in Ismail Serageldin and Pierre Landell-Mills, eds., Overcoming Global Hunger (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1993); Per Pinstrup-Andersen and Marc J. Cohen, "Aid to Developing-Country Agriculture: Investing in Poverty Reduction and New Export Opportunities," 2020 Brief 56 (Washington, DC: IFPRI, October 1998).
234. Maurice Schiff and Alberto Valdes, The Plundering of Agriculture in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992); Lappé, op. cit. note 37.
235. Maurice Schiff and Alberto Valdes, The Plundering of Agriculture in Developing Countries (Washington, DC: World Bank, 1992); Lappé, op. cit. note 37.
236. Haddad et al., op. cit. note 18; Catherine Murphy, Cultivating Havana: Urban Agriculture and Food Security in the Years of Crisis (Oakland, CA: IFDP, May 1999); share of vegetables from urban gardens from "Cuba Goes Green," Washington Post, 26 November 1999.
237. Haddad et al., op. cit. note 18; Catherine Murphy, Cultivating Havana: Urban Agriculture and Food Security in the Years of Crisis (Oakland, CA: IFDP, May 1999); share of vegetables from urban gardens from "Cuba Goes Green," Washington Post, 26 November 1999.
238. Haddad et al., op. cit. note 18; Catherine Murphy, Cultivating Havana: Urban Agriculture and Food Security in the Years of Crisis (Oakland, CA: IFDP, May 1999); share of vegetables from urban gardens from "Cuba Goes Green," Washington Post, 26 November 1999.
239. Christopher Dunford, "The Case for Integrated Delivery of Group-based Microfinance Services and Health/Nutrition Behavior Change Education for Cost-Effective Impact on Chronic Food Insecurity and Malnutrition," Freedom from Hunger, draft, 28 May 1999; Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Impact of Credit with Education on Mothers' and Their Young Childrens' Nutrition: Lower Pra Rural Bank Credit with Education Program in Ghana," Research Paper No. 4 (Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger, March 1998); Muhammad Yunus, "The Grameen Bank," Scientific American, November 1999.
240. Christopher Dunford, "The Case for Integrated Delivery of Group-based Microfinance Services and Health/Nutrition Behavior Change Education for Cost-Effective Impact on Chronic Food Insecurity and Malnutrition," Freedom from Hunger, draft, 28 May 1999; Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Impact of Credit with Education on Mothers' and Their Young Childrens' Nutrition: Lower Pra Rural Bank Credit with Education Program in Ghana," Research Paper No. 4 (Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger, March 1998); Muhammad Yunus, "The Grameen Bank," Scientific American, November 1999.
241. Christopher Dunford, "The Case for Integrated Delivery of Group-based Microfinance Services and Health/Nutrition Behavior Change Education for Cost-Effective Impact on Chronic Food Insecurity and Malnutrition," Freedom from Hunger, draft, 28 May 1999; Barbara MkNelly and Christopher Dunford, "Impact of Credit with Education on Mothers' and Their Young Childrens' Nutrition: Lower Pra Rural Bank Credit with Education Program in Ghana," Research Paper No. 4 (Davis, CA: Freedom from Hunger, March 1998); Muhammad Yunus, "The Grameen Bank," Scientific American, November 1999.
242. Ibid.; MkNelly and Dunford, op. cit. note 100.
243. Ibid.; MkNelly and Dunford, op. cit. note 100.
244. Stuart Gillespie et al., How· Nutrition Improves (Geneva: WHO, July 1996).
245. Kinday Samba Ndure et al., Best Practices and Lessons Learned for Sustainable Community Nutrition Programming (Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development, August 1999); Josefa S. Eusebio et al., "SAGIP-BATA: BIDANI Strategy for Integrated Household-Based Malnutrition Rehabilitation," Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Philippines, draft.
246. Kinday Samba Ndure et al., Best Practices and Lessons Learned for Sustainable Community Nutrition Programming (Washington, DC: Academy for Educational Development, August 1999); Josefa S. Eusebio et al., "SAGIP-BATA: BIDANI Strategy for Integrated Household-Based Malnutrition Rehabilitation," Institute of Human Nutrition and Food, University of the Philippines, Los Baños, Philippines, draft.
247. Gillespie et al., op. cit. note 102.
248. Uvin, op. cit. note 37; Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen, op. cit. note 97; Aileen Kwa, "Will Food Security Get Trampled as the Elephants Fight over Agriculture?" Focus-on-Trade No. 36, electronic bulletin from Focus on the Global South, Bangkok, July 1999.
249. Uvin, op. cit. note 37; Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen, op. cit. note 97; Aileen Kwa, "Will Food Security Get Trampled as the Elephants Fight over Agriculture?" Focus-on-Trade No. 36, electronic bulletin from Focus on the Global South, Bangkok, July 1999.
250. Uvin, op. cit. note 37; Pinstrup-Andersen and Cohen, op. cit. note 97; Aileen Kwa, "Will Food Security Get Trampled as the Elephants Fight over Agriculture?" Focus-on-Trade No. 36, electronic bulletin from Focus on the Global South, Bangkok, July 1999.
251. Denise Grady, "Doctors' Review of 5 Deaths Raises Concern about the Safety of Liposuction," New York Times, 13 May 1999; three common elements from Jane Fritsch, "A Closer Look at Those Who Stay Slim," New York Times, 8 June 1999.
252. Denise Grady, "Doctors' Review of 5 Deaths Raises Concern about the Safety of Liposuction," New York Times, 13 May 1999; three common elements from Jane Fritsch, "A Closer Look at Those Who Stay Slim," New York Times, 8 June 1999.
253. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; additional Trim and Fit information from Barry M. Popkin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, e-mail to authors, 21 September 1999; U.S. program from P.R. Nader et al., "Three-Year Maintenance of Improved Diet and Physical Activity: The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) Cohort," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, July 1999.
254. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; additional Trim and Fit information from Barry M. Popkin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, e-mail to authors, 21 September 1999; U.S. program from P.R. Nader et al., "Three-Year Maintenance of Improved Diet and Physical Activity: The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) Cohort," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, July 1999.
255. WHO, Obesity, op. cit. note 5; additional Trim and Fit information from Barry M. Popkin, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, NC, e-mail to authors, 21 September 1999; U.S. program from P.R. Nader et al., "Three-Year Maintenance of Improved Diet and Physical Activity: The Child and Adolescent Trial for Cardiovascular Health (CATCH) Cohort," Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, July 1999.
256. Elizabeth Frazao, ed., op. cit. note 10; Stacey Schultz, "Why We're Fat," U.S. News & World Report, 8 November 1999.
257. Elizabeth Frazao, ed., op. cit. note 10; Stacey Schultz, "Why We're Fat," U.S. News & World Report, 8 November 1999.
258. Meredith May, "Lunch Going Organic, Berkeley Schools to OK Plan for Pesticide-Free Food," San Francisco Chronicle, 17 August 1999; Tim Lang, "Get Cooking!" project, National Food Alliance, London, phone conversation with authors, 15 July 1999.
259. Meredith May, "Lunch Going Organic, Berkeley Schools to OK Plan for Pesticide-Free Food," San Francisco Chronicle, 17 August 1999; Tim Lang, "Get Cooking!" project, National Food Alliance, London, phone conversation with authors, 15 July 1999.
260. Nestle, op. cit. note 42; L.H. Epstein, "Family-based Behavioral Intervention for Obese Children," International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders, February 1996.
261. Nestle, op. cit. note 42; L.H. Epstein, "Family-based Behavioral Intervention for Obese Children," International Journal of Obesity Related Metabolic Disorders, February 1996.
262. C. Howard Davis, "The Report to Congress on the Appropriate Federal Role in Assuring Access by Medical Students, Residents, and Practicing Physicians to Adequate Training in Nutrition," Public Health Reports, November/December 1994.
263. Pekka Puska, "Development of Public Policy on the Prevention and Control of Elevated Blood Cholesterol," Cardiovascular Risk Factors, August 1996.
264. Consumer survey from The Shopper Report (Philadelphia: Consumer Research Network, September 1997).
265. Pekka Puska, "The North Karelia Project: From Community Intervention to National Activity in Lowering Cholesterol Levels and CHD Risk," European Heart Journal Supplements, 1999.
266. Tim Lang, "Food & Nutrition in the EU: Its Implications for Public Health," prepared for the European Union Main Public Health Issues Project, September 1998.
267. Kelly D. Brownell, "Get Slim with Higher Taxes," New York Times, 15 December 1994.
268. Price change is a Worldwatch calculation from data from the Bureau of Labor Statistics, which uses the consumer price index for the various foods and compares them to the consumer price index for all foods and beverages.
269. R.W. Jeffrey et al. "An Environmental Intervention to Increase Fruit and Salad Purchases in a Cafeteria," Preventive Medicine, November 1994; S.A. French et al., "Pricing Strategy to Promote Low Fat Snack Choices Through Vending Machines," American Journal of Public Health, May 1997; S.A. French et al., "Pricing Strategy to Promote Fruit and Vegetable Purchase in High School Cafeterias," Journal of American Dietetic Association, September 1997.
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272. Slow Food Movement from 〈www.slowfood.com〉, viewed 23 October 1999; Oldways Preservation and Exchange Trust from 〈www.oldwayspt.org〉, viewed 23 October 1999.
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274. Nancy Milio, Nutrition Policy for Food-Rich Countries: A Strategic Analysis (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1990).