Off to a good start: The influence of pre- and periconceptional exposures, parental fertility, and nutrition on children's health

Environmental Health Perspectives

Volumn 112, Issue 1, 2004, Pages 69-78

  Chapin, Robert E ^a   Robbins, Wendie A ^b   Schieve, Laura A ^c   Sweeney, Anne M ^d   Tabacova, Sonia A ^e   Tomashek, Kay M ^c  

^a PFIZER GLOBAL RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c CENTERS FOR DISEASE CONTROL AND PREVENTION   (United States)

^d TEXAS A AND M HEALTH SCIENCE CENTER   (United States)

^e CENTER FOR DRUG EVALUATION AND RESEARCH   (United States)

Author keywords

Birth defects; Chemical exposure; Conception; Fertilization; Review

Indexed keywords

1,3 BUTADIENE DERIVATIVE; CLOMIFENE CITRATE; ETHYLENE GLYCOL DERIVATIVE; LEAD; MISOPROSTOL; ORGANOPHOSPHATE PESTICIDE; TOBACCO SMOKE;

AIR POLLUTION; BIRTH DEFECT; CARDIOVASCULAR MALFORMATION; CHILD; CHILD HEALTH; CHILD PARENT RELATION; CHROMOSOME ABERRATION; COGNITIVE DEFECT; CONCEPTION; DNA DAMAGE; FERTILITY; FETOTOXICITY; GENE MUTATION; HUMAN; INTRAUTERINE GROWTH RETARDATION; LIFE CYCLE; MATERNAL NUTRITION; MONOZYGOTIC TWINS; MULTIPLE PREGNANCY; MUSCULOSKELETAL SYSTEM MALFORMATION; NEUROTOXICITY; NUTRITIONAL STATUS; PERINATAL DRUG EXPOSURE; PRENATAL EXPOSURE; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; SPONTANEOUS ABORTION; TWIN PREGNANCY;

NICOTIANA TABACUM;

EID: 0346869049     PISSN: 00916765     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1289/ehp.6261     Document Type: Review

References (212)

1. Alikani M, Noyes N, Cohen J, Rosenwaks Z. 1994. Monozygotic twinning in the human is associated with the zona pellucida architecture. Hum Reprod 9:1318-1321.
2. Allen LH. 2001, Biological mechanisms that might underlie iron's effects on fetal growth and preterm birth. J Nutr 131:581S-589S.
3. Allen WR, Pashen RL. 1984. Production of monozygotic (identical) horse twins by embryo micromanipulation. J Reprod Fertil 171:607-613.
4. Anderson D, Dobrzynska MM, Basaran N. 1997. Effect of various genotoxins and reproductive toxins in human lymphocytes and sperm in the comet assay. Teratog Carcinog Mutagen 17:29-43.
5. Arbuckle TE, Schrader SM, Cole D, Hall JC, Bancei CM, Turner LA, et al. 1999. 2,4-Dichloropheoxyacetic acid residues in semen of Ontario farmers. Reprod Toxicol 13:421-429.
6. Ashworth CJ, Antipatis C. 2001. Micronutrient programming of development throughout gestation. Reproduction 122:527-535.
7. ATSDR. 2000. Toxicological Profile for Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs). Atlanta, GA:Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry.
8. Balen AH, Tan S-L, MacDougall J, Jacobs HS. 1993. Miscarriage rates following in-vitro fertilization are increased in women with polycystic ovaries and reduced by pituitary desensitization with buserilin. Hum Reprod 8:959-964.
9. Barlow S, Kavlock RJ, Moore JA, Schantz SL, Sheehan DM, Shuey DL, at al. 1999. Teratology Society Public Affairs Committee position paper: developmental toxicity of endocrine disruptors to humans. Teratology 60:365-375.
10. Bavistor BD. 1999. Glucose and culture of human embryos. Fertil Steril 72:233-234.
11. Behr B, Fisch JD, Racowsky C, Miller K, Pool TB, Milki AA. 2000. Blastocyst-ET and monozygotic twinning. J Assist Reprod Genet 17:349-351.
12. Bergh T, Ericson A, Hillensjo T, Nygren KG, Wennerholm UB. 1999. Deliveries and children born after in-vitro fertilization in Sweden 1982-95: a retrospective cohort study. Lancet 354:1579-1585.
13. Blair A, Tarone R, Sandler D, Lynch CF, Rowland A, Wintersteen W, et al. 2001. Reliability on reporting on lifestyle and agricultural factors by a sample of participants in the agricultural health study from Iowa. Epidemiology 13:94-99.
14. Blanco J, Gabau E, Gomez D, Baena N, Guitart M, Egozcue J, et al. 1998. Chromosome 21 disomy in the spermatozoa of fathers of children with trisomy 21 in a population with a high prevalence of Down syndrome: increased incidence in cases of paternal origin. Am J Hum Genet 63:1067-1072.
15. Blount BC, Silva MJ, Caudill SP, Needham LL, Pirkle JL, Sampson EJ, et al. 2000. Levels of seven urinary phthalate metabolites in a human reference population. Environ Health Perspect 108(10):979-982.
16. Bonduelle M, Liebaers I, Deketelaere V, Derde MP, Camus M, Devroey P, et al. 2002. Neonatal data on a cohort of 2889 infants born after ICSI (1991-1999) and of 2995 infants born after IVF (1983-1999). Hum Reprod 17:671-694.
17. Botto LO, Khoury MJ, Mulinare J, Erickson JD. 1996. Periconceptional multivitamin use and the occurrence of conotruncal heart defects: results from a population-based, case-control study. Pediatrics 98:911-917.
18. Caan B, Horgen DM, Margan S, King JC, Jewell NP. 1987. Benefits associated with WIC supplemental feeding during the interpregnancy interval. Am J Clin Nutr 45:29-41.
19. Center for the Evaluation of Risks to Human Reproduction (CERHR). 2002, Summary of Phthalate-Related Reports. Research Triangle Park, NC:National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences. Available: http://cerhr.niehs.nih.gov [accessed 10 Feb 2003].
20. CDC. 2000. Blood lead levels in young children - United States and selected states, 1996-1999. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 49:1133-1337.
21. CDC. 2000. American Society for Reproductive Medicine, Society for Assisted Reproductive Technology, RESOLVE. 2002a. Assisted reproductive technology success rates: national summary and fertility clinic reports. Atlanta, GA:Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
22. CDC. 2002b. Use of assisted reproductive technology - United States, 1996 and 1998. MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep 51:97-101.
23. Chung EK, Webb D, Clampet-Lundquist S, Campbell C. 2001. A comparison of elevated blood lead levels among children living in foster care, their siblings, and the general population [Abstract]. Pediatrics 107:E81.
24. Cnattingius S, Bergstrom R, Lipworth L, Kramer M. 1998. Prepregnancy weight and the risk of adverse pregnancy outcomes. N Engl J Med 338(3):147-152.
25. Coates A, Rutherford AJ, Hunter H, Leese HJ. 1999. Glucose-free medium in human in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer: a large-scale, prospective, randomized clinical trial. Fertil Steril 72:229-232.
26. Colon I, Caro D, Bourdony CJ, Rosario O. 2000. Identification of phthalate esters in the serum of young Puerto Rican girls with premature breast development, Environ Health Perspect 108:895-900.
27. Conaghan J, Hardy K, Leese HJ, Winston RM, Handyside AH. 1998. Culture of human preimplantation embryos to the blastocyst stage: a comparison of 3 media. Int J Dev Biol 42:885-893.
28. Cummings AM. 1993. Assessment of implantation in the rat. In: Methods in Toxicology (Chapin RE, Heindel JJ, eds). Vol 3(B). San Diego; Academic Press, 194-198.
29. Czeizel AE. 1995. Nutritional supplementation and prevention of congenital abnormalities. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 7:88-94.
30. Czeizel AE. 1996. Reduction of urinary tract and cardiovascular defects by periconceptional multivitamin supplementation. Am J Med Genet 62:179-183.
31. da Costa ALE, Abdelmassih SA, de Oliverira FG, Abdelmassih R, Nagy ZP, Balmaceda JP, et al. 2001. Monozygotic twins and transfer at the blastocyst stage after ICSI. Hum Reprod 16:333-336.
32. Davis DL, Gottlieb MB, Stampnitzky JR. 1998. Reduced rate of male to female births in several industrial countries: a sentinel health indicator? JAMA 279:1018-1023.
33. Dawson EB, Evans DR, Harris WA, Powell LC. 2000. Seminal plasma trace metal levels in industrial workers. Biol Trace Elem Res 74:97-105.
34. Derom C, Derom R, Vlietinck R, Van den Berghe H, Thiery M. 1987. Increased monozygotic twinning rate after ovulation induction. Lancet 1:1236-1238.
35. Desai M, Crowther NJ, Lucas A, Hales CN. 1996. Organ-selective growth in the offspring of protein-restricted mothers. Br J Nutr 76:591-603.
36. Devreker F, Hardy K, Van den Bergh M, Vannin AS, Emiliani S, Englert Y. 2001. Amino acids promote human blastocyst development in vitro. Hum Reprod 16(4):749-756.
37. Dhont M, De Sutter P, Ruyssink G, Martens G, Bekaert A. 1999. Perinatal outcome of pregnancies after assisted reproduction: a case-control study. Am J Obstet Gynecol 181:688-695.
38. Dickey RP, Taylor SN, Curolw DN, Rye PH, Pyrzak R. 1996. Incidence of spontaneous abortion in clomiphene pregnancies. Hum Reprod 11:2623-2628.
39. Dolk H. 1998. Rise in prevalence of hypospadias [Letter]. Lancet 351(9105):770.
40. Doyle P, Maconochie N, Roman E, Davies G, Smith PG, Beral V. 2000. Fetal death and congenital malformation in babies born to nuclear industry employees: report from the nuclear industry family study. Lancet 356:1293-1299.
41. Dunn A, Macfarlane A. 1996. Recent trends in the incidence of multiple births and associated mortality in England and Wales. Arch Dis Child Fetal Neonatal Ed 75:F10-F19.
42. Ericson A, Kallen B. 2001. Congenital malformations in infants born after IVF: a population-based study. Hum Reprod 16:504-509.
43. Eskenazi B, Wyrobek AJ, Kidd SA, Lowe X, Moore D II, Weisiger K, et al. 2002. Sperm aneuploidy in fathers of children with paternally and maternally inherited Klinefelter syndrome. Hum Reprod 17:576-583.
44. Evenson DP. 1999. Alterations and damage of sperm chromatin structure and early embryonic failure. In: Towards Reproductive Certainty: Fertility and Genetics Beyond 1999 (Jannsen R, Mortimer D, eds). New York:Parthenon Publishing Group Ltd, 313-329.
45. Evenson DP, Larsen KL, Jost LK. 2002. Sperm chromatin structure assay: its clinical use for detecting sperm DNA fragmentation in male infertility and comparisons with other techniques. J Androl 23:25-43.
46. Farrow A, Farrow SC, Little R, Golding J, The Alspac Study Team. 1996. The repeatability of self-reported exposure after miscarriage. Int J Epidemiol 25(4):797-806.
47. Fein G, Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW, Schwartz PM, Dowler JK. 1984. Prenatal exposure to polychlorinated biphenyls: effects on birth size and gestational age. J Pediatr 105:310-315.
48. Feldman Y, Koren G, Martice D, Shear H, Pellegrini E, MacLeod S. 1989. Determinants of recall and recall bias in studying drug and chemical exposure in pregnancy. Teratology 40:37-45.
49. FIVNAT (French in Vitro National). 1995. Pregnancies and births resulting from in vitro fertilization: French National Registry, analysis of data 1986 to 1990. Fertil Steril 64:746-756.
50. Fraga CG, Motchnik PA, Wyrobek AJ, Rempel DM, Ames BN. 1996. Smoking and low antioxidant levels increase oxidative damage to sperm DNA. Mutat Res 351:199-203.
51. Friedler S, Mashiach S, Laufer N. 1992. Births in Israel resulting from in-vitro fertilization/embryo transfer, 1982-1989: National Registry of the Israeli Association for Fertility Research. Hum Reprod 7:1159-1163.
52. Fukuda M, Fukuda K, Shimizu T, Andersen CY, Byskov AG. 2002. Parental periconceptional smoking and male:female ratio of newborn infants. Lancet 359:1407-1408.
53. Gardner DK, Pool TB, Lane M. 2000. Embryo nutrition and energy metabolism and its relationship to embryo growth, differentiation, and viability. Semin Reprod Med 18:205-218.
54. Geist R, Koren G. 2001. Maternal disorders leading to increased reproductive risks. In: Maternal-Fetal Toxicology, A Clinician's Guide (Koren G, ad). New York:Marcel Dekker, 697-732.
55. Generoso WM, Katoh M, Cain KT, Hughes LA, Foxworth LB, Mitchell TJ, et al. 1989. Chromosome malsegregation and embryonic lethality induced by treatment of normally ovulated mouse oocytes with nocodazole. Mutat Res 210:313-322.
56. Generoso WM, Rutledge JC, Cain KT, Hughes LA, Braden PW. 1987. Exposure of female mice to ethylene oxide within hours after mating leads to fetal malformation and death. Mutat Res 176:269-274.
57. Gillman MW. 2002. Epidemiological challenges in studying the fetal origins of adult chronic disease. Int J Epidemiol 31:294-299.
58. Gissler M, Silvero MM, Hemminki E. 1995. In-vitro fertilization pregnancies and perinatal health in Finland 1991-1993. Hum Reprod 10:1856-1861.
59. Gonzales CH, Marques-Dias MJ, Kim CA, Sugayama SM, Da Paz JA, Huson SM, et al. 1998. Congenital abnormalities in Brazilian children associated with misoprostol misuse in first trimester of pregnancy. Lancet 351:1624-1627.
60. Gorrill MJ, Sadler-Fredd KS, Patton PE, Burry KA. 2001. Multiple gestations in assisted reproductive technology: can they be avoided with blastocyst transfers? Am J Obstet Gynecol 184:1471-1477.
61. Grandjean P, Weihe P, White RF, Debes F. 1998. Cognitive performance of children prenatally exposed to "safe" levels of methylmercury. Environ Res 77:165-172.
62. Gray LE. 1998. Xenoendocrine disrupters: laboratory studies on male reproductive effects. Toxicol Lett 102:331-335.
63. Gressens P, Muaku SM, Besse L, Nsegbe E, Gallego J, Delpech B, et al. 1997. Maternal protein restriction early in rat pregnancy alters brain development in the progeny. Brain Res Dev Brain Res 103(1):21-35.
64. Guttmacher AF. 1953. The incidence of multiple births in man and some of the other unipara. Obstet Gynecol 2:22-35.
65. Guvenc H, Karatas F, Guvenc M, Kunc S, Aygun AD, Bektas S. 1995. Low levels of selenium in mothers and their new-borns in pregnancies with a neural tube defect. Pediatrics 95:879-882.
66. Hales BF, Robaire B. 2001. Paternal exposure to drugs and environmental chemicals: effects on progeny outcome. J Androl 22:927-936.
67. Hall J, Solehdin F. 1998. Folic acid for the prevention of congenital anomalies. Eur J Pediatr 157:445-450.
68. Hama Y, Uematsu M, Sakurai Y, Kusano S. 2001. Sex ratio in the offspring of male radiologists. Acad Radiol 8:421-424.
69. Hammadeh ME, Al-Hassani S, Stieber M, Rosenbaum P, Kupker D, Diedrish K. 1996. The effect of chromatin condensation (aniline blue staining) and morphology (strict criteria) of human spermatozoa on fertilization, cleavage, and pregnancy rates in an intracytoplasmic sperm injection programme. Hum Reprod 11:2468-2471.
70. Hanrahan LP, Falk C, Anderson HA, Draheim L, Kanarek MS, Olson J, and The Great Lakes Consortium. 1999. Serum PCB and DDE levels of frequent Great Lakes sport fish consumers - a first look. Environ Res 80:S26-S37.
71. Hansen M, Kurinczuk JJ, Bower C, Webb S. 2002. The risk of major birth defects after intracytoplasmic sperm injection and in vitro fertilization. N Engl J Med 346:725-730.
72. Harkonen K, Viitanen T, Larsen SB, Bonde JP, ASCLEPIOS, Lahdetie J. 1999. Aneuploidy in sperm and exposure to fungicides and lifestyle factors. Environ Mol Mutagen 34:39-46.
73. Harlow SO, Linet MS. 1989. Reviews and commentary agreement between questionnaire data and medical records. The evidence for accuracy of recall. Am J Epidemiol 129(2):233-248.
74. Hassold TJ. 1998. Nondisjunction in the human male. In: Meiosis and Gametogenesis. San Diego, CA:Academic Press, 383-406.
75. Hershlag A, Paine T, Cooper GW, Scholl GM, Rawlinson K, Kvapil G. 1999. Monozygotic twinning associated with mechanical assisted hatching, Fertil Steril 71:144-146.
76. Hewitson L, Dominko T, Takahashi D, Martinovich C, Ramalho-Santos J, Sutovsky P, et al. 1999. Unique checkpoints during the first cell cycle of fertilization after intracytoplasmic sperm injection in rhesus monkeys. Nature Med 5:431-433.
77. Hixon M, Millie E, Judis LA, Sherman S, Allran K, Taft L. 1998. FISH studies of sperm of fathers of paternally derived cases of trisomy 21: no evidence for an increase in aneuploidy. Hum Genetics 103:654-657.
78. Hoffman D, Brunnemann KD, Prokopczyk B, Djordjevic MV. 1994. Tobacco-specific N-nitrosamines and areca-derived N-nitrosamines - chemistry, biochemistry, carcinogenicity, and relevance to humans. J Toxicol Environ Health 41:1-52.
79. Humphrey HEB, Gardiner JC, Pandya JR, Sweeney AM, Gasior DM, McCaffrey RJ, et al. 2001. PCB congener profile in the serum of humans consuming Great Lakes fish. Environ Health Perspect 108:167-172.
80. Hur YM, McGue M, Iacono WG. 1995. Unequal rate of monozygotic and like-sex dizygotic twin birth: evidence from the Minnesota twin family study. Behav Genet 25:337-340.
81. Iannaccone PM, Bossert NL, Connelly CS. 1987. Disruption of embryonic and fetal development due to preimplantation chemical insults: a critical review. Am J Obstet Gynecol 157:476-484.
82. Inskip H. 1999. Stillbirth and paternal preconceptional radiation exposure. Lancet 354:1400-1401.
83. Itikala PR, Watkins ML, Mulinare J, Moore CA, Liu Y. 2001. Maternal multivitamin use and orofacial clefts in offspring. Teratology 63:79-86.
84. Jacobson JL, Jacobson SW. 1996. Intellectual impairment in children exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls in utero. N Engl J Med 335:783-789.
85. James WH. 1996. Evidence that mammalian sex ratios at birth are partially controlled by parental hormone levels at the time of conception. J Theor Biol 180:271-286.
86. Jobling S, Reynolds T, White R, Parker MG, Sumpter JP. 1995. A variety of environmentally persistent chemicals, including some phthalate plasticizers, are weakly estrogenic. Environ Health Perspect 106:582-587.
87. Kallen B, Bertollini R, Castilla E, Gzeizel A, Knudsen LB, Martinas-Frias ML. 1986. A joint international study of the epidemiology of hypospadias. Acta Paediatr Scand 324(suppl):1-52.
88. Kapoor JP, Metcalf RL, Nystrom RF, Sangha GK. 1970. Comparative metabolism of methoxychlor, methiochlor, and DDT in mouse, insects, and in a model ecosystem. J Agric Food Chem 18:1145-1152.
89. Kelly JP, Rosenberg KL, Kaufman DW, Shapiro S. 1990. Reliability of personal interview data in a hospital-based case-control study. Am J Epidemiol 131(1):79-90.
90. Khosla S, Dean W, Reik W, Feil R. 2001. Epigenetic and experimental modifications in early mammalian development: Part II. Culture of preimplantation embryos and its long-term effects on gene expression and phenotype. Hum Reprod Update 7:419-427.
91. King JC. 2000. Physiology of pregnancy and nutrient metabolism. Am J Clin Nutr 71(suppl):1218S-1225S.
92. Kirke PN, Molloy AM, Daly LE, Burke H, Weir DG, Scott JM. 1993. Maternal plasma folate and vitamin B12 are independent risk factors for neural tube defects. Q J Med 86:703-708.
93. Klip H, Verloop J, van Gool JD, Koster ME, Burger CW, van Leouwen FE. 2002, Hypospadias in sons of women exposed to diethylstilbestrol in utero: a cohort study. Lancet 359:1102-1107.
94. Kovacs BW, Kirschbaum TH, Paul RH. 1989. Twin gestations. I. Antenatal care and complications. Obstet Gynecol 74:313-317.
95. Kreiss K. 1985 Studies on populations exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls. Environ Health Perspect 60:193-199.
96. Kumar R, Pant N, Srivastava SP. 2000. Chlorinated pesticides and heavy metals in human semen. Int J Androl 23:145-149.
97. Kwong WY, Wild AE, Roberts P, Willis AC, Fleming TP. 2000. Maternal undernutrition during the preimplantation period of rat development causes blastocyst abnormalities and programming of postnatal hypertension. Development 127:4195-4202.
98. Laden F, Collman G, Iwamoto K, Alberg AJ, Berkowitz GS, Freudenheim JL, et al. 2001. 1,1-Dichloro-2,2-bis(p-chlorophenyl)ethylene and polychlorinated biphenyls and breast cancer: combined analysis of five U.S. studies. J Natl Cancer Inst 93:768-775.
99. Langley-Evans SC. 2000. Critical differences between two low protein diet protocols in the programming of hypertension in the rat. Int J Food Sci Nutr 51:11-17.
100. Lelong N, Kaminski M, Saurel-Cubizolles MJ, Bouvier-Colle MH. 2001. Postpartum return to smoking among usual smokers who quit during pregnancy. Eur J Public Health 11(3):334-339.
101. London SN, Young DM, Caldito G, Maihes JB. 2000. Clomiphene citrate-induced perturbations during meiotic maturation and cytogenetic abnormalities in mouse oocytes in vivo and in vitro. Fertil Steril 73:620-626.
102. Lu ZM, Goldenberg RL, Cliver SP, Cutter G, Blankson ML. 1991. The relationship between maternal hematocrit and pregnancy outcome. Obstet Gynecol 71:190-194.
103. Luetjens CM, Payne C, Schatten G. 1999. Non-random chromosome positioning in human sperm and sex chromosome anomalies following intracytoplasmic sperm injection. Lancet 353:1240.
104. Luke B. 1994a. Nutrition during pregnancy. Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol 6:402-407.
105. Luke B. 1994b. Nutritional influences on fetal growth. Clin Obstet Gynecol 37:538-549.
106. Luke MC, Coffey DS. 1994. The male accessory tissues: structure, androgen action, and physiology. In: The Physiology of Reproduction (Knobil E, Neill JD, eds). Second ad, Vol 1. New York:Raven Press, 1478.
107. Lumley J, Watson L, Watson M, Bower C. 2002. Periconceptional supplementation with folate and/or multivitamins for preventing neural tube defects (Cochrane Review). In: The Cochrane Library. Issue 2. Oxford, UK:Update Software.
108. MacGillivray I. 1986. Epidemiology of twin pregnancy. Semin Perinatol 10:4-8.
109. MacIntosh DL, Needham LL, Hammerstrom KA, Ryan PB. 1999. A longitudinal investigation of selected pesticide metabolites in urine. J Expo Anal Environ Epidemiol 9:949-501.
110. Martin JA, Park MM. 1999. Trends in twin and triplet births: 1980-97. National Vital Statistics Reports. Vol 47, no 24. Hyattsville, MD:National Center for Health Statistics.
111. Martinez-Pasarell O, Nogues C, Bosch M, Egozcve J, Templado C. 1999. Analysis of sex chromosome aneuploidy in sperm from fathers of Turner syndrome patients. Hum Genet 3:1365-1371.
112. McElhatton PR, Bateman ON, Pughe KR, Thomas SH. 1999. Congenital anomalies after prenatal ecstasy exposure. Lancet 354:1441-1442.
113. McFaul PB, Patel N, Mills J. 1993. An audit of the obstetric outcome of 148 consecutive pregnancies from assisted conception: implications for neonatal services. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 100:820-825.
114. Metges CC. 2001. Does dietary protein in early life effect the development of adiposity in mammals? J Nutr 131:2062-2066.
115. Mocarelli P, Gerthoux PM, Ferrari E, Patterson DG Jr, Kicszak SM, Brambilla P. 2000. Paternal concentrations of dioxin and sex ratio of offspring. Lancet 355:1858-1863.
116. MRC Working Party on Children Conceived by in Vitro Fertilisation. 1990. Births in Great Britain resulting from assisted conception, 1978-87. Br Med J 300:1229-1233.
117. Murphy R, Harvey C. 1985. Residues and metabolites of selected persistent halogenated hydrocarbons in blood specimens from a general population survey. Environ Health Perspect 60:115-120.
118. Naeye RL, Tafari N, Judge D, Marboe CC. 1978. Twins: causes of perinatal death in 12 United States cities and one African city. Am J Obstet Gynecol 131:267-272.
119. National Children's Study. 2002. Home Page. Bethesda, MD:National Institutes of Health, Available http://nationalchildrensstudy.gov [accessed 9 Feb 2003].
120. National Research Council. 2000. Toxicological Effects of Mercury. Washington, DC:Committee on the Toxicological Effects of Methylmercury, National Research Council.
121. Nijs M, Vanderzwalmen P, Segal-Bertin G, Geerts L, Van Roosendaal E, Segal L, et al. 1993. A monozygotic twin pregnancy after application of zona rubbing on a frozen-thawed blastocyst. Hum Reprod 8:127-129.
122. Noack-Fuller G, De Beer C, Seibert H. 1993. Cadmium, lead, selenium, and zinc in semen of occupationally unexposed men. Andrologia 25:7-12.
123. O'Rahilly R, Muller F. 2001. Human Embryology & Teratology. 3rd ed. New YorkWiley-Liss.
124. Oktay K, Berkowitz P, Berkus M, Schenken RS, Brzyski RG. 2000. The re-incarnation of an old question - clomid effect on oocyte and embryo? Fertil Steril 74:422-423.
125. Olivennes F, Rufat P, Andre B, Poourade A, Quiros MC, Frydman R. 1993. The increased risk of complication observed in singleton pregnancies resulting from in-vitro fertilization (IVF) does not seem to be related to the IVF method itself. Hum Reprod 8:1297-1300.
126. Pacifici R, Altieri I, Gandini L, Lenzi A, Pichini S, Rosa M, et al. 1993. Nicotine, cotinine, and trans-3-hydroxycotinine levels in seminal plasma of smokers: effects on sperm parameters. Ther Drug Monit 15:358-363.
127. Padungtod C, Hassold T, Millie E, Ryan LM, Savitz DA, Christian DC, et al. 1999. Sperm aneuploidy among Chinese pesticide factory workers: scoring by the FISH method. Am J Ind Med 36:230-238.
128. Pangalos C, Talbot C, Lewis J, Adelsherger P, Petersen M, Sarre J-L, et al. 1992. DNA polymorphism analysis in families with recurrence of free trisomy 21. Am J Hum Genet 51:1015-1027.
129. Parazzini F, Tozzi L, Mezzanotte G, Bocciolone L, Vecchia CL, Fedele L, et al. 1991. Trends in multiple births in Italy: 1955-1983. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 98:535-539.
130. Paulozzi LJ, Erickson JD, Jackson RJ. 1997. Hypospadias trends in two US surveillance systems. Pediatrics 100:831-834.
131. Peramo B, Ricciarelli E, Cuadros-Fernandez JM, Huguet E, Hernandez ER. 1999. Blastocyst transfer and monozygotic twinning. Fertil Steril 72:1116-1117.
132. Perreault SD, Aitken RJ, Baker HWG, Evenson DP, Huszar G, Irvine DS, et al. 2003, Integrating new tests of sperm genetic integrity into semen analysis: breakout group discussion. In: Advances in Male Mediated Developmental Toxicity (Robaire B, Hales BF, eds). New York:Kluwer Academic/Plenum, 253-268.
133. Perreault SD, Rubes J, Robbins WA, Evanson DP, Selevan SG. 2000. Evaluation of aneuploidy and DNA damage in human spermatozoa: applications in field studies. Andrologia 32:247-254.
134. Perry GS, Byers TE, Mokdah AH, Serdula MK, Williamson DF. 1995. The validity of self-reports of past body weight by U.S. adults. Epidemiology 6:61-66.
135. Pflieger-Bruss S, Schill W-B. 2000. Effects of chlorinated hydrocarbons on sperm function in vitro. Andrologia 32:311-315.
136. Picard L, King WA, Betteridge KJ. 1985. Production of sexed calves from frozen-thawed embryos. Vat Rec 117:603-608.
137. Potashnik G, Goldsmith J, Insler V. 1984. Dibromochloropropane-induced reduction of the sex ratio in man. Andrologia 16(3):213-218.
138. Potts RJ, Newbury C., Smith G, Notarianni LJ, Jefferies TM. 1999. Sperm chromatin damage associated with male smoking. Mutat Res 423:103-111.
139. Pryor JL, Hughes C, Foster W, Hales BF, Robaire B. 2000. Critical windows of exposure for children's health: the reproductive system in animals and humans. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):491-503.
140. Ramakrishnan U, Manjrekar R, Rivera J, Gonzales-Cossio T, Martorell R. 1999. Micronutrients and pregnancy outcome: a review of the literature. Nutr Res 19(1):103-159.
141. Ramalho-Santos J, Sutovshy P, Simerly C, Oko R, Wessel GM, Hewitson L, et al. 2000. ICSI choreography: fate of sperm structures after monospermic rhosus ICSI and first cell cycle implications. Hum Reprod 15:2610-2620.
142. Rasmussen KM. 2001. Is there a causal relationship between iron deficiency or iron-deficiency anemia and weight at birth, length of gestation and perinatal mortality? J Nutr 131:590S-603S.
143. Recio R, Robbins WA, Borja-Aburto V, Moran-Martinez J, Froines JR, Hernandez RM, et al. 2001. Organophosphorous pesticide exposure increases the frequency of sperm sex null anouploidy. Environ Health Perspect 109(12):1237-1240.
144. Rivrud GN. 1988. Mutagenicity testing of seminal fluid: seminal fluid increases the mutagenicity of the precursor mutagen benzo[a]pyrene in the presence of S9 mix. Mutat Res 208:195-200.
145. Robbins WA, Rubes J, Selevan SG, Perreault SD. 1999. Air pollution and sperm aneuploidy in healthy young men. Environ Epidemiol Toxicol 1:125-131.
146. Robbins WA, Vine M, Truong K, Everson RB. 1997. Use of fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) to assess effects of smoking, caffeine, and alcohol on aneuploidy load in sperm of healthy men. Environ Mol Mutagen 30:175-183.
147. Robinson J, Chidzanja S, Kind K, Lok F, Owens P, Owens J. 1995. Placental control of fetal growth. Reprod Fertil Dev 7:333-344.
148. Robinson JJ, Sinclair KD, McEvoy TG. 1999. Nutritional effects of foetal growth. Anim Sci 68:315-331.
149. Rogan WJ, Gladen BG, Guo Y-L L, Hsu C-C. 1999. Sex ratio after exposure to dioxin-like chemicals in Taiwan. Lancet 353:206-207.
150. Root R, Browner CH. 2001. Practices of the pregnant self: compliance with and resistance to prenatal norms, Cult Med Psychiatry 25(2):195-223.
151. Rothman KJ, Moore LL, Singer MR, Nguyen US, Mannino S, Milunsky A. 1995. Teratogenicity of high vitamin A intake. N Engl J Med 23:1369-1373.
152. Rubes J, Lowe X, Moore HD, Perreault S, Slott V, Evanson D, et al. 1998. Smoking cigarettes is associated with increased sperm disomy in teenage men. Fertil Steril 70:715-723.
153. Rutledge JC, Generoso WM, Shourbaji A, Cain KT, Gans M, Oliva J. 1992. Developmental anomalies derived from exposure of zygotes and first-cleavage embryos to mutagens. Mutat Res 296:167-177.
154. Saaranen M, Kantola M, Saarikoski S, Vanha-Perttula T. 1989. Human seminal plasma cadmium: comparison with fertility and smoking habits. Andrologia 21:140-145.
155. Sadler TW. 1998. Mechanisms of neural tube closure and defects. Ment Retard Dev Disabil Res Rev 4:247-253.
156. Sakamoto M, Nakano A, Akagi H. 2001. Declining Minamata male birth ratio associated with increased male fetal death due to heavy methylmercury pollution. Environ Res 87:92-97.
157. Sakkas D, Urner F, Bizzaro D Manicardi G, Bianchi PG, Shoukir Y. 1998. Sperm nuclear DNA damage and altered chromatin structure: effect on fertilization and embryo development. Hum Reprod 4(suppl):11-19.
158. Sanborn MD, Abelsohn A, Campbell M, Weir E. 2002. Identifying and managing adverse environmental health effects. 3. Lead exposure. Can Med Assoc J 166:1287-1292.
159. Scanlon KS, Yip R, Schieve LA, Cogswell ME. 2000. High and low hemoglobin levels during pregnancy: differential risks for preterm birth and small for gestational age. Obstet Gynecol 96(5 pt 1):741-748.
160. Schantz SL, Gasior DM, Ploverejan E, McCaffrey RJ, Sweeney AM, Humphrey HE, et al. 2001. Impairments of memory and learning in older adults exposed to polychlorinated biphenyls via consumption of Great Lakes fish. Environ Health Perspect 109:605-611.
161. Schecter A, McGee H, Stanley JS, Boggess K, Brandt-Rauf P. 1996. Dioxins and dioxin-like chemicals in blood and semen of American Vietnam veterans from the state of Michigan. Am J Ind Med 30:647-654.
162. Schieve LA, Meikle SF, Ferre C, Peterson HB, Jung G, Wilcox LS. 2002. Low and very low birth weight in infants conceived with use of assisted reproductive technology. N Engl J Med 346:731-737.
163. Schieve LA, Meikle SF, Peterson HB, Jeng G, Canal I, Burnett NM, et al. 2000. Does assisted hatching pose a risk for monozygotic twinning in pregnancies conceived through in vitro fertilization? Fertil Steril 74:288-294.
164. Schlebusch H, Wagner U, van der Van H, Al-Hasani S, Diedrich K, Krebs D. 1989. Polychlorinated biphenyls: the occurrence of the main congeners in follicular and sperm fluids. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 27:663-667.
165. Scholl TO, Hediger ML, Fischer RL, Shearer JW. 1992. Anemia versus iron deficiency: increased risk of preterm delivery in a prospective study. Am J Clin Nutr 55:985-988.
166. Scholl TO, Reilly T. 2000, Anemia, iron and pregnancy outcome. J Nutr 130:443S-447S.
167. Seidel SD, Li V, Winter GM, Rogers WJ, Martinez EI, Denison MS. 2000. Ah receptor-based chemical screening bioassays: application and limitations for the detection of Ah receptor agonists. Toxicol Sci 55:107-115.
168. Selevan SG, Kimmel CA, Mendola P. 2000. Identifying critical windows of exposure for children's health. Environ Health Perspect 108(suppl 3):451-455.
169. Sempos CT 1992. Invited commentary: Some limitations of semi-quantitative food frequency questionnaires. Am J Epidemiol 135:1127-1132.
170. Sergerie M, Ouhilal S, Bissonnette F, Brodeur J, Bleau G. 2000. Lack of association between smoking and DNA fragmentation in the spermatozoa of normal men. Hum Reprod 15:1314-1321.
171. Sever LE, Gilbert ES, Hessol NA, McIntyre JM. 1988. A case-control study of congenital malformations and occupational exposure to low-level ionizing radiation. Am J Epidemiol 127:226-242
172. Shadel BN, Evans RG, Roberts D, Clardy S, Jordan-Izzaguire D, Patterson DG Jr, et al. 2001. Background levels of non-ortho-substituted (coplanar) polychlorinated biphenyls in human serum of Missouri residents. Chemosphere 43(4-7):967-976.
173. Sheiner E, Har-Vardi I, Potashinik G. 2001. The potential association between blastocyst transfer and monozygotic twinning. Fertil Steril 75:217-218.
174. Shiota K, Chou MJ, Nishimura H. 1980. Embryotoxic effects of di-2-ethylhexyl phthalate (DEHP) and di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP) in mice. Environ Res 22:245-253.
175. Shoham Z, Zosmer A, Insler V. 1991. Early miscarriage and fetal malformations after induction of ovulation (by clomiphene citrate and/or human menotropins), in vitro fertilization, and gamete intrafallopian transfer. Fertil Steril 55:1-11.
176. Shoob HD, Sargent RG, Thompson SJ, Best RG, Crane JW, Tocharoen A. 2001. Dietary methionine is involved in the etiology of neural tube defect-affected pregnancies in humans. J Nutr 131:2653-2658.
177. Skupski DW, Streltzoff J, Hutson M, Rosenwaks Z, Cohen J, Chervenak FA. 1995. Early diagnosis of conjoined twins in triplet pregnancy after in vitro fertilization and assisted hatching. J Ultrasound Med 14:611-615.
178. Slotnick RN, Ortega JE. 1996. Monoamniotic twinning and zona manipulation: a survey of U.S. IVF centers correlating zona manipulation procedures and high-risk twinning frequency. J Assist Reprod Genet 13:381-385.
179. Sorensen HT, Thulstrup AM, Mortensen J, Larsen H, Pederson L. 2000. Hyperemesis gravidarum and sex of child. Lancet 355(9201):407.
180. Sotomaru Y, Kato Y, Tsunoda Y. 1998. Production of monozygotic twins after freezing and thawing of bisected mouse embryos. Cryobiology 37:139-145.
181. Stachel B, Dougherty RC, Dahl U, Schlosser M, Zeschmar B. 1989. Toxic environmental chemicals in human semen: analytical method and case studies. Andrologia 21:282-291.
182. Stevens-Simon C, McAnarney ER, Coulter MP. 1986. How accurately do pregnant adolescents estimate their weight prior to pregnancy? J Adolesc Health Care 7:250-254.
183. Stromberg B, Dahlquist G, Ericson A, Finnstrom O, Koster M, Stjernqvist KK. 2002. Neurological sequelae in children born after in-vitro fertilisation: a population-based study. Lancet 359:461-465.
184. Sundstrom I, Ildgruben A, Hogberg U. 1997. Treatment-related and treatment-independent deliveries among infertile couples, a long-term follow-up. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 76:238-243.
185. Susser M, Stein Z. 1994. Timing in prenatal nutrition: a reprise of the Dutch Famine Study. Nutr Rev 52(3):84-94.
186. Sutovsky P, Hewitson L, Simerly CR, Tengowski MW, Navara CS, Haavisto A, et al. 1996. Intracytoplasmic sperm injection for rhesus monkey fertilization results in unusual chromatin, cytoskeletal, and membrane events, but eventually leads to pronuclear development and sperm aster assembly. Hum Reprod 11:1703-1712.
187. Szymczynski GA, Waliszewski SM. 1981. Content of chlorinated pesticides in human semen of a random population. Int J Androl 4:669-674.
188. Talansky BE, Gordon JW. 1988. Cleavage characteristics of mouse embryos inseminated and cultured after zona pellucida drilling. Gamete Res 21:277-287.
189. Tanaka A, Matsumoto A, Yamaha T. 1978. Biochemical studies on phthalic esters. III. Metabolism of dibutyl phthalate (DBP) in animals. Toxicology 9:109-123.
190. Tee PG, Sweeney AM, Symanski E, Gardiner JC, Gasior DM, Schantz SL. 2003. A longitudinal examination of factors related to changes in serum polychlorinated biphenyl levels. Environ Health Perspect 111(5):702-707.
191. Telisman S, Cvitkovic P, Jurasovic J, Piaent A, Gavella M, Rocic B. 2000. Semen quality and reproductive endocrine function in relation to biomarkers of lead, cadmium, zinc, and copper in men. Environ Health Perspect 108:45-53.
192. Terada Y, Luetjens CM, Sutovshy P, Schatten G. 2000. Atypical decondensation of the sperm nucleus, delayed replication of the male genome, and sex chromosome positioning following intra cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) into golden hamster eggs: does ICSI itself introduce chromosomal anomalies? Fertil Steril 74:454-456.
193. Tesarik J, Mendoza C, Greco E. 2002. Paternal effects acting during the first cell cycle of human preimplantation development after ICSI. Hum Reprod 17:184-189.
194. Toppari J, Larsen J, Christiansen P, Giwercman A, Grandjean P, Guillette LJ, et al. 1996. Male reproductive health and environmental xenoestrogens. Environ Health Perspect 104(suppl 4):741-803.
195. Van Langendonckt A, Wyns C, Godin PA, Toussaint-Demylle D, Donnez J. 2000. Atypical hatching of a human blastocyst leading to monozygotic twinning: a case report. Fertil Steril 74:1047-1050.
196. Velie EM, Block G, Shaw GM, Samuels SJ, Schaffer DM, Kulldoff M. 1999. Maternal supplementation and dietary zinc intake and the occurrence of neural tube defects in California. Am J Epidemiol 150:605-616.
197. Verlaenen H, Cammu H, Derce MP, Amy JJ. 1995. Singleton pregnancy after in vitro fertilization expectations and outcome. Obstet Gynecol 86:906-910.
198. Wagner U, Schlebusch H, van der Ven H, Diedrich K, Krebs D. 1990. Accumulation of pollutants in the genital tract of sterility patients. J Clin Chem Clin Biochem 28:683-688.
199. Wei EK, Gardner J, Field AE, Rosner BA, Colditz GA, Suitor CW. 1999. Validity of a food frequency questionnaire in assessing nutrient intakes of low-income pregnant women. Matern Child Health J 3(4):241-246.
200. Wells JC, Cole TJ. 2002. Birth weight and environmental heat load: a between-population analysis. Am J Phys Anthropol 119(3):276-282.
201. Wennerholm UB, Bergh C, Hamberger L, Lundin K, Nilsson L, Wikland M, et al. 2000. Incidence of congenital malformations in children born after ICSI. Hum Reprod 15:944-948.
202. Werler MW, Louik C, Shapiro S, Mitchell AA. 1996. Prepregnant weight in relation to risk of neural tube defects. J Am Med Assoc 275:1089-1092.
203. Westergaard HB, Johansen AM, Erb K, Andersen AN. 1999. Danish national in-vitro fertilization registry 1994 and 1995: a controlled study of births, malformations and cytogenetic findings. Hum Reprod 14:1896-1902.
204. WHO. 1995. Maternal Anthropometry and Pregnancy Outcomes: A WHO Collaborative Study. Bull World Health Organ 73(suppl):1-98.
205. Wilkinson CF, Lamb JC. 1999. The potential health effects of phthalate esters in children's toys: a review and risk assessment. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 30:140-155.
206. Wong WY, Thomas CMG, Merkus HMWM, Zielhuis GA, Doesburg WH, Steegers-Theunissen RPM. 2000. Cigarette smoking and the risk of male factor subfertility: minor association between cotinine in seminal plasma and semen morphology. Fertil Steril 74:930-935.
207. Xiao G, Pan C, Cai Y, Lin H, Fu Z. 1999. Effect of benzene, toluene, xylene on semen quality of exposed workers. Chin Med J 112:709-712.
208. Xu B, Chia SE, Tsakok M, Ong CN. 1993. Trace elements in blood and seminal plasma and their relationship to sperm quality. Reprod Toxicol 7:613-618.
209. Yazigi RA, Odem, RR, Polakoski KL. 1991. Demonstration of specific binding of cocaine to human spermatozoa. JAMA 266:1956-1959.
210. Younglai EV, Foster WG, Hughes EG, Trim K, Jarrell JF. 2002. Levels of environmental contaminants in human follicular fluid, serum, and seminal plasma of couples undergoing in vitro fertilization. Arch Environ Contain Toxicol 43:121-126.
211. Zenzes MT, Puy LA, Bielecki R, Reed TE. 1999. Detection of benzo[a] pyrene diol epoxide-DNA adducts in embryos from smoking couples: evidence for transmission by spermatozoa. Mol Hum Reprod 5:125-131.
212. Zhou LM, Yang WW, Hua JZ, Deng CQ, Tao X, Stoltzfus RJ, 1998. Relation of hemoglobin measured at different times in pregnancy to preterm birth and low birth weight in Shanghai, China. Am J Epidemiol 148(10):998-1006.