The current debate about the origins of the Paleoindians of America

Journal of Social History

Volumn 37, Issue 2, 2003, Pages

  Klein, Herbert S ^a,c   Schiffner, Daniel C ^b,d  

^a Och Spine at New York Presbyterian Hospitals   (United States)

^b UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

^c Department of History ^*  (United States)

^d UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0346339424     PISSN: 00224529     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1353/jsh.2003.0184     Document Type: Review

References (78)

1. Stuart J. Fiedel, Prehistory of the Americas (2d ed; Cambridge, 1992), p. 2.
2. Fiedel, Prehistory of the Americas, pp. 7-9.
3. William N. Irving, "Context and Chronology of Early Man in the Americas," American Review of Anthropology 14 (1985): 530. The work of W.H. Holmes in. 1897 and A Hrdlicka in 1907 effectively rejected all supposed Neanderthal findings for the New World - and this position was never again proposed.
4. Thomas D. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Americas: A New Prehistory (New York, 2000), chapter 2.
5. A good summation of this traditional view is found in Irving "Context and Chronology," p. 530-534.
6. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Amerkas, chapter 5. as well as Thomas D. Dillehay, Monte Verde, a late Pleistocene settlement in Chile (2 vols.; Washington, D.C, 1989-1997). For the latest defense of the radio carbon dates of at least 12,500 BP see, R.E. Taylorm et. al., "Radiocarbon Analyses of Modern Organics at Monte Verde, Chile: No Evidence for a Local Reservoir Effect," American Antiquity 64:3 (1999): 455-460.
7. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Amerkas, chapter 5. as well as Thomas D. Dillehay, Monte Verde, a late Pleistocene settlement in Chile (2 vols.; Washington, D.C, 1989-1997). For the latest defense of the radio carbon dates of at least 12,500 BP see, R.E. Taylorm et. al., "Radiocarbon Analyses of Modern Organics at Monte Verde, Chile: No Evidence for a Local Reservoir Effect," American Antiquity 64:3 (1999): 455-460.
8. Dillehay, The Settlement of the Amerkas, chapter 5. as well as Thomas D. Dillehay, Monte Verde, a late Pleistocene settlement in Chile (2 vols.; Washington, D.C, 1989-1997). For the latest defense of the radio carbon dates of at least 12,500 BP see, R.E. Taylorm et. al., "Radiocarbon Analyses of Modern Organics at Monte Verde, Chile: No Evidence for a Local Reservoir Effect," American Antiquity 64:3 (1999): 455-460.
9. Irving "Context and Chronology," p. 537.
10. See for example David G. Anderson and J. Christoper Gillam, "Paleoindian Colonization of the Americas: Implications from an Examination of the Physiography, Demography and Artifact Distribution," American Antiquity 65:1 (2000): 43-66; and Todd A. Surovell, "Early Paleoindian Women, Children, Mobility, Fertility," American Antiquity 65:3 (2000): 493-508.
11. See for example David G. Anderson and J. Christoper Gillam, "Paleoindian Colonization of the Americas: Implications from an Examination of the Physiography, Demography and Artifact Distribution," American Antiquity 65:1 (2000): 43-66; and Todd A. Surovell, "Early Paleoindian Women, Children, Mobility, Fertility," American Antiquity 65:3 (2000): 493-508.
12. Stuart J. Fiedel, "Older Than We Thought: Implications of Corrected Dates for Paleoindians," American Antiquity 64:1 (1999): 99.
13. Fiedel, "Older than We Thought," p. 102.
14. Joseph H. Greenberg, Christy G. Turner II and Stephen L. Zegura, "The Settlement of the Americas: A Comparison of the Linguistic, Dental and Genetic Evidence," Current Antrhopology 27:5 (December 1986): 477.
15. Greenberg, et. al. "The Settlement of the Americas," p. 478.
16. See for example, Darío A. Demarchi, et. al., "Absence of the 9-bp Deletion of Mitochondrial DNA in Pre-Hispanic Inhabitants of Argentina," Human Biology 73:4 (August 2001): 575-582 which was based on 34 skeletal remains from five archeological sites in Argentina.
17. Natalia R. Mesa et al., "Autosomal, mtDNA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre- and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America" American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286.; and L. B. Jorde, et. al., "The Distribution of Human Genetic Diversity: A Comparison of Mitochondrial, Autosomal, and Y-Chromosome Data" American Journal of Human Genetics, 66 (2000): 979-988.
18. Natalia R. Mesa et al., "Autosomal, mtDNA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre- and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America" American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286.; and L. B. Jorde, et. al., "The Distribution of Human Genetic Diversity: A Comparison of Mitochondrial, Autosomal, and Y-Chromosome Data" American Journal of Human Genetics, 66 (2000): 979-988.
19. T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations," 613-622; S Horai, et. al., "Peopling of the Americas founder by four major lineages of mitochondrial DNA," Molecular Biology and Evolution 10 (1993): 23-47; Antonio Torroni and D.C. Wallace "mtDNA haplogroups in Native Americans," American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (1995):1234-1236.
20. T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations," 613-622; S Horai, et. al., "Peopling of the Americas founder by four major lineages of mitochondrial DNA," Molecular Biology and Evolution 10 (1993): 23-47; Antonio Torroni and D.C. Wallace "mtDNA haplogroups in Native Americans," American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (1995):1234-1236.
21. T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations," 613-622; S Horai, et. al., "Peopling of the Americas founder by four major lineages of mitochondrial DNA," Molecular Biology and Evolution 10 (1993): 23-47; Antonio Torroni and D.C. Wallace "mtDNA haplogroups in Native Americans," American Journal of Human Genetics 56 (1995):1234-1236.
22. G Bailliet, et. al., "Founder mitochondrial haplotypes in Amerindian populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 55 (1994): 27-33; and M. D. Brown, et. al, "mtDNA haplogroup X: an ancient link between Europe/Western Asia and North America?" American Journal ofHuman Genetics 63 (1998): 1852-1861.
23. G Bailliet, et. al., "Founder mitochondrial haplotypes in Amerindian populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 55 (1994): 27-33; and M. D. Brown, et. al, "mtDNA haplogroup X: an ancient link between Europe/Western Asia and North America?" American Journal ofHuman Genetics 63 (1998): 1852-1861.
24. A. Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993) 563-590.
25. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton, 1994), chapter 6; and B.C. Wallace "Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Human Evolution, Degenerative Disease, and Aging," American Journal of Human Genetics 57 (1995): 201-223.
26. L. Luca Cavalli-Sforza, Paolo Menozzi and Alberto Piazza, The History and Geography of Human Genes (Princeton, 1994), chapter 6; and B.C. Wallace "Mitochondrial DNA Variation in Human Evolution, Degenerative Disease, and Aging," American Journal of Human Genetics 57 (1995): 201-223.
27. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
28. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
29. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
30. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
31. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
32. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
33. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
34. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
35. Also see R. H. Ward, et. al., "Genetic and linguistic differentiation in the Americas," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 90 (1993): 10663-10667; A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation of the four founding Native American mtDNAs," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 563-590; and A. Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Amerindian and the Nadene populations were founded by two independent migrations," Genetics 130 (1992): 153-162; Using mtDNA studies, Shields and his colleagues added a novel concept to this model. This team of investigators grouped the mtDNA lineages of the Na-Dene, Eskimo-Aleuts, and the Chukchi of Siberia into the Circumarctic people and concluded that the Na-Dene and Eskimo-Aleuts crossed the Bering land bridge together during a rapid radiation of these Circumarctic people that occurred thousands of years after the Amerindian migration G.F. Shields, et. al., "mtDNA sequences suggest a recent evolutionary divergence for Beringian and northern North American populations," American Journal of Human Genetics 53 (1993): 549-562. Also see T. G. Schurr, et. al., "Amerindian mitochondrial DNAs have rare Asian mutations at high frequencies, suggesting they derived from four primary maternal lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 46 (1990): 613-622; and A Torroni, et. al., "Asian affinities and continental radiation;, " A Torroni, et. al., "Native American mitochondrial DNA analysis," and Antonio Torroni, et. al., "Mitochondrial DNA 'clock' for the Amerinds [Chibcha] and its implications for timing their entry into North America," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 91 (1994): 1158-1162; R. H. Ward, et. al., "Extensive mitochondrial diversity within a single Amerind ian tribe," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 88 (1991): 8720-8724.
36. Cavalli-Sforza, History & Geography, p. 307.
37. Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, " mtDNA analysis of a prehistoric Oneota population: Implications for the peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Genetics 62 (1998): 1153-1170
38. David J. Meltzer, "Clocking the First Americans" Annual Review of Anthropology 24 (1995): 21-45.
39. D. A. Merriwether, et. al., "Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 98 (1995): 411-430; P. Forster, et. al., "Origin and evolution of Native American mtDNA variation: a reappraisal," American Joumal of Human Genetics 59 (1996): 935-945; and Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported bymitochondrial DNA sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 94 (1997): 1866-1871.
40. D. A. Merriwether, et. al., "Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 98 (1995): 411-430; P. Forster, et. al., "Origin and evolution of Native American mtDNA variation: a reappraisal," American Joumal of Human Genetics 59 (1996): 935-945; and Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported bymitochondrial DNA sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 94 (1997): 1866-1871.
41. D. A. Merriwether, et. al., "Distribution of the four founding lineage haplotypes in Native Americans suggests a single wave of migration for the New World," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 98 (1995): 411-430; P. Forster, et. al., "Origin and evolution of Native American mtDNA variation: a reappraisal," American Joumal of Human Genetics 59 (1996): 935-945; and Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A single and early migration for the peopling of the Americas supported bymitochondrial DNA sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 94 (1997): 1866-1871.
42. Bonatto and Salzano, "A Single and Early Migration," loc. cit. and Stone and Stoneking "mtDNA analysis of a prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit.
43. Bonatto and Salzano, "A Single and Early Migration," loc. cit. and Stone and Stoneking "mtDNA analysis of a prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit.
44. Wilson A. Silva, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Early Entry of Founder Populations into America" American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192.
45. Stone and Stoneking "mtDNA analysis of a prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit.
46. Peter.A. Underhill, et. al., "A pre-Columbian Y chromosome-specific transition and its implications for human evolutionary history," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 93 (1996): 196-200.
47. A W. Bergen, et. al., "An Asian-Native American paternal lineage identified by RPS4Y resequencing and microsatellite haplotyping," Annual Review of Human Genetics 63 (1999): 63-80.
48. A Ruiz-Linares, et. al."Microsatellites provide evidence for Y chromosome diversity among the founders of the New World," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science USA 96 (1999): 6312-6317.
49. Underhill et. al. "A pre-columbian Y chromosome-specific transition and its implications for human evolutionary history." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93 (1996): 196-2000. J.T. Lell et. al. "Y chromosome polymorphisms and the origins of Native Americans" American Journal of Human Genetics 59 (1996) (Supplement): A182. T.M. Karafet et. al. "Y Chromosome Markers and Trans-Bering Strait Dispersals," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102 (1997): 301-314.
50. Underhill et. al. "A pre-columbian Y chromosome-specific transition and its implications for human evolutionary history." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93 (1996): 196-2000. J.T. Lell et. al. "Y chromosome polymorphisms and the origins of Native Americans" American Journal of Human Genetics 59 (1996) (Supplement): A182. T.M. Karafet et. al. "Y Chromosome Markers and Trans-Bering Strait Dispersals," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102 (1997): 301-314.
51. Underhill et. al. "A pre-columbian Y chromosome-specific transition and its implications for human evolutionary history." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 93 (1996): 196-2000. J.T. Lell et. al. "Y chromosome polymorphisms and the origins of Native Americans" American Journal of Human Genetics 59 (1996) (Supplement): A182. T.M. Karafet et. al. "Y Chromosome Markers and Trans-Bering Strait Dispersals," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 102 (1997): 301-314.
52. J. T. Lell, et. al., "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes" American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206; and T. M. Karafet, et. al., "Ancestral Asian source(s) of new world Y-chromosome founder haplotypes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999): 817-831.
53. J. T. Lell, et. al., "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes" American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206; and T. M. Karafet, et. al., "Ancestral Asian source(s) of new world Y-chromosome founder haplotypes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999): 817-831.
54. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
55. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
56. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
57. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
58. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
59. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
60. The debate has been led by two Brazilian scholars, Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "A Single and early Migration for the Peopling of the Americas supported by mitochondrial DNA Sequence data," Proceedings of the National Academy of Science 94 (1997): 1866-1871; also see Wilson A, Suva, Jr, et. al., "Mitochondrial Genome Diversity of Native Americans Supports a Single Entry of Founder Populations into America," American Journal of Human Genetics 71 (2002): 187-192; and Anne C. Stone and Mark Stoneking, "mtDNA Analysis of a Prehistoric Oneota Population," loc. cit. Using evidence from the distribution of the Y Chromosomes, Jeffrey T. Lell and his associates have argued for two major migrations for early man, see Jeffrey T. Lell, et.al, "The Dual Origin and Siberian Affinities of Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 192-206. This position was attacked by Eduardo Tarazona-Santos and Fabrício R,. Santos, "The Peopling of the Americas: A Second Major Migration," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 1377-1380; and defended by Lylle in the same issue "Reply to Tarazona-Santos and Santos," ibid, pp. 1380-81. Finally Mahli and his associates have most recently challenged the whole idea of defining the number of founding groups, especially as they argue that few North American native populations have been fully evaluated for their mtDNA markers. Ripan S. Mahli, et. al., "The Structure of Diversity within New World Mitochrondrial DNA Haplogroups: Implications for the Prehistory of North America," American Journal of Human Genetics 70 (2002): 906.
61. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
62. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
63. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
64. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
65. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
66. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et.
67. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
68. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
69. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
70. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
71. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
72. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
73. Aside from the works cited above, see see Sandro L. Bonatto and Francisco M. Salzano, "Diversity and Age of the Four Major mtDNA Haplogroups, and their Implications for the Peopling of the New World," American Journal of Human Gene tics 61 (1997): 1413-1423; A.S. Goicocoechea, et. al., "Genetic Relationship Between Amerindian Populations of Argentina," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1333-1343; Juliana Alves-Silva, et. al., "The Acenstry of Brazilian mtDNA lineages," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 444-461; Angélica González-Olivier, et. al., "Founding Amerindian Mitochondrial DN A lineages in Ancient Maya from Xcaret, Quintana Roo," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 116 (2001): 230-235; Federika A. Kaestle and David Glenn-Smith, Ancient Mitochondrial DNA Evidence for Prehistoric Population Movement: The Numic [Western Nevada] Expansion," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 115 (2001): 1-12; C.J Kolman, andE. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial and nuclear DNA diversity in the Chaco and Chibcha Amerinds of Panama," Genetics 147 (1997): 1289-1302; Natalia R. Mesa, et. al., "Autosomal, mtNDA, and Y-Chromosome Diversity in Amerinds: Pre and Post-Columbian Patterns of Gene Flow in South America," American Journal of Human Genetics 67 (2000): 1277-1286; Mauricio L. Moraga, "Mitochondrial DNA Polymorphisms in Chilean Aboriginal Populations: Implications for Peopling of the Southern Cone of the Continent," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 113 (2000): 19-29; Pedro Moral, et. al., "Genetic Variability in the Guahibo Population from Venezuela," American Journal of Human Biology 14 (2002): 21-28; and C.J Kolman, N Sambuughin and E. Bermingham, "Mitochondrial DNA analysis of Mongolian populations and implication for the origin of New World Founders," Genetics 142 (1996): 1321-1334; and Hiroki Oota, et.al, "Extreme mtDNA Homogeneity in Continental Asian Population," American Journal of Physical Anthropology 118 (2002): 146-153. The Y chromosomes have been studied by Fabrício R. Santos, et. al., "The Central Siberian Origin for Native American Y Chromosomes," American Journal of Human Genetics 64 (1999); 619-628; Eduardo Tarazona-Santos, et. al., "Genetic Differentiation in South Amerindians is Relates to Environmental and Cultural Diversity: Evidence from the Y Chromosome," American Journal of Human Genetics 68 (2001): 1485-1496.
74. Alan G Fix, "Colonization Models and Initial Genetic Diversity in the Americas," Human Biology 74:1 (Feb 2002): 1-10.
75. Lyle Campbell, American Indian Languages. This Historical Linguistics of Native America (New York, 1997), chapter 3.
76. Joseph F. Powell & Walter A. Neves, "Craniofacial Morphology of the First Americans: Pattern and Process in the Peopling of the New World, " Yearbook of Physical Anthropology 42 (1999): 153-188.
77. See Joseph F. Powell and Walter A. Neves, "Dental diversity of early New World populations: Taking a bite out of the tripartite model," American Journal of Physical Anthropolgy 105 (1998) (IssueS26): 179-180; as well their broad survey in Powell & Neves, "Craniofacial Morphology."
78. See Joseph F. Powell and Walter A. Neves, "Dental diversity of early New World populations: Taking a bite out of the tripartite model," American Journal of Physical Anthropolgy 105 (1998) (IssueS26): 179-180; as well their broad survey in Powell & Neves, "Craniofacial Morphology."