Issues in the Study of Political Violence: Understanding the Motives of Participants in Small Group Political Violence

Terrorism and Political Violence

Volumn 12, Issue 1, 2000, Pages 95-108

  White, Robert W ^a  

^a School of Liberal Arts   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0345903565     PISSN: 09546553     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1080/09546550008427552     Document Type: Article

References (100)

1. See David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78 (1984), pp.658-677; see also Edward Herman and Gerry O'Sullivan, The 'Terrorism' Industry (New York: Pantheon Books 1989).
2. See David C. Rapoport, 'Fear and trembling: Terrorism in Three Religious Traditions', American Political Science Review 78 (1984), pp.658-677; see also Edward Herman and Gerry O'Sullivan, The 'Terrorism' Industry (New York: Pantheon Books 1989).
3. Two important approaches to studying small-group political violence are found in Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism as political communication: The relationship between the controller and the controlled', in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (eds), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.3-23; and J. Bowyer Bell, 'Terror: An overview', in Marius H. Livingston (with Lee Bruce Kress and Marie G. Wanek), International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1978), pp.36-43. These approaches are insightful and inform the argument here. The reader may also see Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats', Terrorism and Political Violence (TPV) 1/2 (Spring 1989), pp.242-269; and Sam D. Sieber, 'The Integration of Fieldwork and Survey methods', American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973), pp. 1335-1359.
4. Two important approaches to studying small-group political violence are found in Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism as political communication: The relationship between the controller and the controlled', in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (eds), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.3-23; and J. Bowyer Bell, 'Terror: An overview', in Marius H. Livingston (with Lee Bruce Kress and Marie G. Wanek), International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1978), pp.36-43. These approaches are insightful and inform the argument here. The reader may also see Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats', Terrorism and Political Violence (TPV) 1/2 (Spring 1989), pp.242-269; and Sam D. Sieber, 'The Integration of Fieldwork and Survey methods', American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973), pp. 1335-1359.
5. Two important approaches to studying small-group political violence are found in Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism as political communication: The relationship between the controller and the controlled', in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (eds), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.3-23; and J. Bowyer Bell, 'Terror: An overview', in Marius H. Livingston (with Lee Bruce Kress and Marie G. Wanek), International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1978), pp.36-43. These approaches are insightful and inform the argument here. The reader may also see Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats', Terrorism and Political Violence (TPV) 1/2 (Spring 1989), pp.242-269; and Sam D. Sieber, 'The Integration of Fieldwork and Survey methods', American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973), pp. 1335-1359.
6. Two important approaches to studying small-group political violence are found in Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism as political communication: The relationship between the controller and the controlled', in Paul Wilkinson and Alasdair M. Stewart (eds), Contemporary Research on Terrorism (Aberdeen: Aberdeen University Press 1987), pp.3-23; and J. Bowyer Bell, 'Terror: An overview', in Marius H. Livingston (with Lee Bruce Kress and Marie G. Wanek), International Terrorism in the Contemporary World (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1978), pp.36-43. These approaches are insightful and inform the argument here. The reader may also see Ron D. Crelinsten, 'Terrorism, Counter-Terrorism and Democracy: The Assessment of National Security Threats', Terrorism and Political Violence (TPV) 1/2 (Spring 1989), pp.242-269; and Sam D. Sieber, 'The Integration of Fieldwork and Survey methods', American Journal of Sociology 78 (May 1973), pp. 1335-1359.
7. As Ron Crelinsten (note 2) notes, 'moral condemnation of outrageous acts of violence can blind the researcher...' (p.5). See also the discussion of 'Understanding' and 'Verstehen'in Talcott Parsons, Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Free Press 1947) and H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press 1946).
8. As Ron Crelinsten (note 2) notes, 'moral condemnation of outrageous acts of violence can blind the researcher...' (p.5). See also the discussion of 'Understanding' and 'Verstehen'in Talcott Parsons, Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Free Press 1947) and H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press 1946).
9. As Ron Crelinsten (note 2) notes, 'moral condemnation of outrageous acts of violence can blind the researcher...' (p.5). See also the discussion of 'Understanding' and 'Verstehen'in Talcott Parsons, Max Weber: The Theory of Social and Economic Organization (New York: Free Press 1947) and H.H. Gerth and C. Wright Mills, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology (New York: Oxford University Press 1946).
10. See Robert W. White, 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism', TPV9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; S. Bruce, 'Victim selection in ethnic conflict: Motives and attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71; R. White, 'The Irish Republican Army and sectarianism: Moving beyond the anecdote', TPV 9/2 (Summer 1997), pp.120-131; C.J.M. Drake, 'The role of ideology in terrorists' target selection', TPV 10/2 (Summer 1998), pp.53-85.
11. See Robert W. White, 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism', TPV9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; S. Bruce, 'Victim selection in ethnic conflict: Motives and attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71; R. White, 'The Irish Republican Army and sectarianism: Moving beyond the anecdote', TPV 9/2 (Summer 1997), pp.120-131; C.J.M. Drake, 'The role of ideology in terrorists' target selection', TPV 10/2 (Summer 1998), pp.53-85.
12. See Robert W. White, 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism', TPV9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; S. Bruce, 'Victim selection in ethnic conflict: Motives and attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71; R. White, 'The Irish Republican Army and sectarianism: Moving beyond the anecdote', TPV 9/2 (Summer 1997), pp.120-131; C.J.M. Drake, 'The role of ideology in terrorists' target selection', TPV 10/2 (Summer 1998), pp.53-85.
13. See Robert W. White, 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism', TPV9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; S. Bruce, 'Victim selection in ethnic conflict: Motives and attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71; R. White, 'The Irish Republican Army and sectarianism: Moving beyond the anecdote', TPV 9/2 (Summer 1997), pp.120-131; C.J.M. Drake, 'The role of ideology in terrorists' target selection', TPV 10/2 (Summer 1998), pp.53-85.
14. See Malcolm Sutton, An Index of Deaths From the Conflict in Northern Ireland, 1969-1993 (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications, 1994); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton, Lost Lives: The Stories of the Men. Women and Children who died as a result of the Northern Ireland Troubles (Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing 1999).
15. See Malcolm Sutton, An Index of Deaths From the Conflict in Northern Ireland, 1969-1993 (Belfast: Beyond the Pale Publications, 1994); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton, Lost Lives: The Stories of the Men. Women and Children who died as a result of the Northern Ireland Troubles (Edinburgh: Mainstream Publishing 1999).
16. Robert White (note 4), 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism', p.196.
17. J. Stevenson, We Wrecked the Place: Contemplating an End to the Northern Irish Troubles (London: The Free Press 1996), pp.50-53; M. Sutton (note 5); see also Robert White 1997 (note 4), 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism'); C.J.M. Drake (note 4).
18. J. Stevenson, We Wrecked the Place: Contemplating an End to the Northern Irish Troubles (London: The Free Press 1996), pp.50-53; M. Sutton (note 5); see also Robert White 1997 (note 4), 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism'); C.J.M. Drake (note 4).
19. J. Stevenson, We Wrecked the Place: Contemplating an End to the Northern Irish Troubles (London: The Free Press 1996), pp.50-53; M. Sutton (note 5); see also Robert White 1997 (note 4), 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism'); C.J.M. Drake (note 4).
20. J. Stevenson, We Wrecked the Place: Contemplating an End to the Northern Irish Troubles (London: The Free Press 1996), pp.50-53; M. Sutton (note 5); see also Robert White 1997 (note 4), 'The Irish Republican Army: An assessment of sectarianism'); C.J.M. Drake (note 4).
21. For example, Sutton (note 5); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda: Update, 1987-89 (London: Irish Information Partnership, 1990); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda (London: Irish Information Partnership 1986); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton (note 5).
22. For example, Sutton (note 5); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda: Update, 1987-89 (London: Irish Information Partnership, 1990); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda (London: Irish Information Partnership 1986); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton (note 5).
23. For example, Sutton (note 5); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda: Update, 1987-89 (London: Irish Information Partnership, 1990); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda (London: Irish Information Partnership 1986); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton (note 5).
24. For example, Sutton (note 5); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda: Update, 1987-89 (London: Irish Information Partnership, 1990); Irish Information Partnership, Irish Information Agenda (London: Irish Information Partnership 1986); David McKittrick, Seamus Kelters, Brian Feeney, and Chris Thornton (note 5).
25. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
26. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
27. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
28. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
29. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
30. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
31. The interested reader may refer to the following and the references cited within; Susan Olzak, 'Analysis of events in the study of collective action', Annual Review of Sociology 15, pp.119-41; J. Craig Jenkins and Kurt Schock, 'Global structures and political processes in the study of domestic political conflict', Annual Review of Sociology 18, pp.161-85; and Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Berlin: Sigma 1998); see also Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly, The Rebellious Century: 1830-1930 (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press 1975); Charles Tilly, From Mobilization to Revolution (Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley 1978); See also Sidney Tarrow, 'Studying contentious politics: From eventful history to cycles of collective action'. In Dieter Rucht, Ruud Koopmans, and Friedhelm Neidhardt (editors), Acts of Dissent: New Developments in the Study of Protest (Sigma: Berlin), pp.33-64; and see Ruud Koopmans and Dieter Rucht, 'Introduction to Special Issue: Protest Event Analysis - Where to now?' Mobilization (Fall 1999), pp. 123-30, and the articles follow.
32. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly (note 9), The Rebellious Century; see also Bert Klandermans, 'The case for longitudinal research on movement participation', in Mario Diani and Ron Eyerman (eds), Studying Collective Action (London: SAGE Publications 1992), pp.55-75.
33. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly (note 9), The Rebellious Century; see also Bert Klandermans, 'The case for longitudinal research on movement participation', in Mario Diani and Ron Eyerman (eds), Studying Collective Action (London: SAGE Publications 1992), pp.55-75.
34. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly (note 9); see also Charles Tilly, 'War making and state making as organized crime', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985).
35. See Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly and Richard Tilly (note 9); see also Charles Tilly, 'War making and state making as organized crime', in Peter B. Evans, Dietrich Rueschemeyer and Theda Skocpol (eds), Bringing the State Back In (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1985).
36. See Sutton (note 5); see also, J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 - (Dublin: The Academy Press), pp.381-82; R. White, 'From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Irish Republican Army', American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.1277-1302; J. McGuffin, Internment! (Tralee: Anvil 1973); R. McClean, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Swords, Co. Dublin: Ward River Press 1983).
37. See Sutton (note 5); see also, J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 - (Dublin: The Academy Press), pp.381-82; R. White, 'From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Irish Republican Army', American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.1277-1302; J. McGuffin, Internment! (Tralee: Anvil 1973); R. McClean, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Swords, Co. Dublin: Ward River Press 1983).
38. See Sutton (note 5); see also, J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 - (Dublin: The Academy Press), pp.381-82; R. White, 'From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Irish Republican Army', American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.1277-1302; J. McGuffin, Internment! (Tralee: Anvil 1973); R. McClean, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Swords, Co. Dublin: Ward River Press 1983).
39. See Sutton (note 5); see also, J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 - (Dublin: The Academy Press), pp.381-82; R. White, 'From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Irish Republican Army', American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.1277-1302; J. McGuffin, Internment! (Tralee: Anvil 1973); R. McClean, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Swords, Co. Dublin: Ward River Press 1983).
40. See Sutton (note 5); see also, J. Bowyer Bell, The Secret Army: The IRA 1916 - (Dublin: The Academy Press), pp.381-82; R. White, 'From peaceful protest to guerrilla war: Micromobilization of the Irish Republican Army', American Journal of Sociology 94, pp.1277-1302; J. McGuffin, Internment! (Tralee: Anvil 1973); R. McClean, The Road to Bloody Sunday (Swords, Co. Dublin: Ward River Press 1983).
41. Social scientists have long recognized that there is a relationship between state violence and levels of insurgency. Examples of this work include, Edward Muller, 'Income inequality, regime repressiveness, and political violence', American Sociological Review 50 (1985), pp.47-61; Edward Muller and Erich Weede, 'Cross-national variation in political violence: A rational action approach,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 34 (1990), pp.624-51; Robert White, 'On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969-1980', American Sociological Review 58, pp.575-85; Ronald A. Francisco, 'The relationship between coercion and protest' Journal of Conflict Resolution 39 (June 1995), pp.263-282.
42. Social scientists have long recognized that there is a relationship between state violence and levels of insurgency. Examples of this work include, Edward Muller, 'Income inequality, regime repressiveness, and political violence', American Sociological Review 50 (1985), pp.47-61; Edward Muller and Erich Weede, 'Cross-national variation in political violence: A rational action approach,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 34 (1990), pp.624-51; Robert White, 'On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969-1980', American Sociological Review 58, pp.575-85; Ronald A. Francisco, 'The relationship between coercion and protest' Journal of Conflict Resolution 39 (June 1995), pp.263-282.
43. Social scientists have long recognized that there is a relationship between state violence and levels of insurgency. Examples of this work include, Edward Muller, 'Income inequality, regime repressiveness, and political violence', American Sociological Review 50 (1985), pp.47-61; Edward Muller and Erich Weede, 'Cross-national variation in political violence: A rational action approach,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 34 (1990), pp.624-51; Robert White, 'On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969-1980', American Sociological Review 58, pp.575-85; Ronald A. Francisco, 'The relationship between coercion and protest' Journal of Conflict Resolution 39 (June 1995), pp.263-282.
44. Social scientists have long recognized that there is a relationship between state violence and levels of insurgency. Examples of this work include, Edward Muller, 'Income inequality, regime repressiveness, and political violence', American Sociological Review 50 (1985), pp.47-61; Edward Muller and Erich Weede, 'Cross-national variation in political violence: A rational action approach,' Journal of Conflict Resolution 34 (1990), pp.624-51; Robert White, 'On Measuring Political Violence: Northern Ireland, 1969-1980', American Sociological Review 58, pp.575-85; Ronald A. Francisco, 'The relationship between coercion and protest' Journal of Conflict Resolution 39 (June 1995), pp.263-282.
45. Bruce Hoffman and David Claridge, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism and Noteworthy Domestic Incidents, 1996', TPV10/2 (Summer 1998), pp. 135-180; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St.Andrews Chronology of International Terrorist Incidents, 1995', TPV 8/3 (Autumn 1996) pp.87-127; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism, 1994', TPV 7/4 (Winter 1995), pp. 178-229.
46. Bruce Hoffman and David Claridge, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism and Noteworthy Domestic Incidents, 1996', TPV10/2 (Summer 1998), pp. 135-180; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St.Andrews Chronology of International Terrorist Incidents, 1995', TPV 8/3 (Autumn 1996) pp.87-127; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism, 1994', TPV 7/4 (Winter 1995), pp. 178-229.
47. Bruce Hoffman and David Claridge, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism and Noteworthy Domestic Incidents, 1996', TPV10/2 (Summer 1998), pp. 135-180; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St.Andrews Chronology of International Terrorist Incidents, 1995', TPV 8/3 (Autumn 1996) pp.87-127; Bruce Hoffman and Donna Kim Hoffman, 'The RAND-St Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism, 1994', TPV 7/4 (Winter 1995), pp. 178-229.
48. Bruce Hoffman and David Claridge (note 14), 'The RAND-St. Andrews Chronology of International Terrorism and Noteworthy Domestic Incident, 1996', p.139.
49. 'Volunteer Eddie O'Brien: A thoughtful, strong-willed young man', An Phoblact/Republican News 29 February 1996, pp.10-11; 'Diarmuid O'Neill was IRA Volunteer', An Phoblacht/Republican New, Thursday, 10 October, 1996, p.3.
50. 'Volunteer Eddie O'Brien: A thoughtful, strong-willed young man', An Phoblact/Republican News 29 February 1996, pp.10-11; 'Diarmuid O'Neill was IRA Volunteer', An Phoblacht/Republican New, Thursday, 10 October, 1996, p.3.
51. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12).
52. See M. Sutton (note 5).
53. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12).
54. See for example the discussion in J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), pp.vii-xix); Robert White, Provisional Irish Republicans: An Oral and Interpretive History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1993), pp.179-88.
55. See for example the discussion in J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), pp.vii-xix); Robert White, Provisional Irish Republicans: An Oral and Interpretive History (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press 1993), pp.179-88.
56. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
57. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
58. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
59. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
60. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
61. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
62. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
63. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
64. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 12) ; Steve Bruce, The Red Hand: Protestant Paramilitaries in Northern Ireland (Oxford: OUP 1992); Frank Burton, The Politics of Legitimacy: Struggles in a Belfast Community (London: Routledge & Kegan Paul 1978); Kathleen Cavanaugh, 'Interpretations of Political Violence in Ethnically Divided Societies', TPV 9/3 (Autumn 1997), pp.33-54; Sarah Nelson, Ulster's Uncertain Defenders: Protestant Political, Paramilitary, and Community Groups, and the Northern Ireland Conflict (Belfast: Appletree Press/Syracuse: Syracuse University Press, 1984); Jeffrey Sluka, Hearts and Minds, Water and Fish: Support for the IRA and INLA in a Northern Irish Ghetto (Greenwich, CT: JAI Press 1989); Donatella della Porta, Social Movements, Political Violence, and the State (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press 1995); Jeffrey Kaplan, 'The Context of American Millenarian Revolutionary Theology: The Case of the 'Identity Christian' Church of Israel', TPV 5/1 (Spring 1993), pp.30-82; Jeffrey Kaplan, 'Absolute Rescue: Absolutism, Defensive Action and the Resort to Force', TPV 7/ (Autumn 1995), pp.128-163.
65. See Robert White (note 20) pp. 179-188.
66. See the various chapters in Howard Becker, Sociological Work: Method and Substance (New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction 1970).
67. Paul Wilkinson, 'The Provisional IRA: An Assessment in the Wake of the 1981 Hunger Strike', Government and Opposition 17 (1982), p. 147.
68. See for example Tom Collins, The Irish Hunger Strike (Dublin: White Island 1986).
69. For more on this with respect to Northern Ireland see Robert White and Terry F. White, 'Repression and the liberal state: The Case of Northern Ireland, 1969-1972', Journal of Conflict Resolution 39, pp.330-352.
70. J. Bowyer Bell, The Irish Troubles: A Generation of Violence (New York: St. Martin's, 1993), pp.355, 538.
71. See Andrew Boyd, The Informers: A Chilling Account of the Supergrasses in Northern Ireland (Dublin: Mercier Press 1984); J. Bowyer Bell (note 27) p.791.
72. See Andrew Boyd, The Informers: A Chilling Account of the Supergrasses in Northern Ireland (Dublin: Mercier Press 1984); J. Bowyer Bell (note 27) p.791.
73. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 27) pp.246-47; J. Bowyer Bell, 'Career moves: Reflections on the Irish gunman.' Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 15, pp.69-88; L. Clarke, Broadening the Battlefield: The H-Blocks and the Rise of Sinn Fein (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan 1987), p.228.
74. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 27) pp.246-47; J. Bowyer Bell, 'Career moves: Reflections on the Irish gunman.' Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 15, pp.69-88; L. Clarke, Broadening the Battlefield: The H-Blocks and the Rise of Sinn Fein (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan 1987), p.228.
75. See J. Bowyer Bell (note 27) pp.246-47; J. Bowyer Bell, 'Career moves: Reflections on the Irish gunman.' Studies in Conflict and Terrorism 15, pp.69-88; L. Clarke, Broadening the Battlefield: The H-Blocks and the Rise of Sinn Fein (Dublin: Gill and Macmillan 1987), p.228.
76. J. Bowyer Bell (note 27).
77. J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), p.xv; Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Social Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press 1999, 2nd edition); see also the discussion in John Horgan, 'Issues in terrorism research', The Police Journal 70(3), pp.193-202; R White (note 20) pp. 179-88 .
78. J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), p.xv; Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Social Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press 1999, 2nd edition); see also the discussion in John Horgan, 'Issues in terrorism research', The Police Journal 70(3), pp.193-202; R White (note 20) pp. 179-88 .
79. J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), p.xv; Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Social Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press 1999, 2nd edition); see also the discussion in John Horgan, 'Issues in terrorism research', The Police Journal 70(3), pp.193-202; R White (note 20) pp. 179-88 .
80. J. Bowyer Bell, The Dynamics of the Armed Struggle (London: Frank Cass 1998), p.xv; Russell K. Schutt, Investigating the Social World: The Process and Practice of Social Research (Thousand Oaks, CA: Pine Forge Press 1999, 2nd edition); see also the discussion in John Horgan, 'Issues in terrorism research', The Police Journal 70(3), pp.193-202; R White (note 20) pp. 179-88.
81. Jennifer Brown and Jonathan Sime, 'A methodology for accounts', in Michael Brenner (ed.), Social Method and Social Life (New York: Academic Press, 1981), pp.159-88.
82. See Robert White, 'The Provisional Irish Republican Army: An Assessment of Sectarianism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; Steve Bruce, 'Victim Selection in Ethnic Conflict: Motives and Attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71.
83. See Robert White, 'The Provisional Irish Republican Army: An Assessment of Sectarianism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.20-55; Steve Bruce, 'Victim Selection in Ethnic Conflict: Motives and Attitudes in Irish Republicanism', TPV 9/1 (Spring 1997), pp.56-71.
84. See M. Sutton (note 5).
85. See also J. Bowyer Bell (note 2).
86. See for example the discussion in Douglas McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency: 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1982); Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan 1986, 2nd edition), pp.34-43; Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, Richard Tilly (note 9); Ted R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1970).
87. See for example the discussion in Douglas McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency: 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1982); Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan 1986, 2nd edition), pp.34-43; Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, Richard Tilly (note 9); Ted R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1970).
88. See for example the discussion in Douglas McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency: 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1982); Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan 1986, 2nd edition), pp.34-43; Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, Richard Tilly (note 9); Ted R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1970).
89. See for example the discussion in Douglas McAdam, Political Process and the Development of Black Insurgency: 1930-1970 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press 1982); Paul Wilkinson, Terrorism and the Liberal State (London: Macmillan 1986, 2nd edition), pp.34-43; Charles Tilly, Louise Tilly, Richard Tilly (note 9); Ted R. Gurr, Why Men Rebel (Princeton: Princeton University Press 1970).
90. See Ron Crelinsten's (note 2) model, and see Douglas McAdam (note 36); William Gamson, Bruce Fireman and Steve Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey 1992); Bert Klandermans, 'Social-psychological extensions of resource mobilization theory', American Sociological Review 49, pp.583-600.
91. See Ron Crelinsten's (note 2) model, and see Douglas McAdam (note 36); William Gamson, Bruce Fireman and Steve Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey 1992); Bert Klandermans, 'Social-psychological extensions of resource mobilization theory', American Sociological Review 49, pp.583-600.
92. See Ron Crelinsten's (note 2) model, and see Douglas McAdam (note 36); William Gamson, Bruce Fireman and Steve Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey 1992); Bert Klandermans, 'Social-psychological extensions of resource mobilization theory', American Sociological Review 49, pp.583-600.
93. See Ron Crelinsten's (note 2) model, and see Douglas McAdam (note 36); William Gamson, Bruce Fireman and Steve Rytina, Encounters with Unjust Authority (Homewood, IL: Dorsey 1992); Bert Klandermans, 'Social-psychological extensions of resource mobilization theory', American Sociological Review 49, pp.583-600.
94. See Robert White (note 12); Marwan Khawaja, 'Repression and popular collective action: Evidence from the West Bank', Sociological Forum 8 (1993): pp.47-71; Karen Rasler, 'Concessions, repression, and political protest in the Iranian Revolution', American Sociological Review 61, pp.132-152.
95. See Robert White (note 12); Marwan Khawaja, 'Repression and popular collective action: Evidence from the West Bank', Sociological Forum 8 (1993): pp.47-71; Karen Rasler, 'Concessions, repression, and political protest in the Iranian Revolution', American Sociological Review 61, pp.132-152.
96. See Robert White (note 12); Marwan Khawaja, 'Repression and popular collective action: Evidence from the West Bank', Sociological Forum 8 (1993): pp.47-71; Karen Rasler, 'Concessions, repression, and political protest in the Iranian Revolution', American Sociological Review 61, pp.132-152.
97. See for example the discussion in Morton Hunt, Profiles of Social Research: The Scientific study of Human Interactions (Russell Sage Foundation: New York 1985), pp.72-76.
98. See also Ron Crelinsten (note 2) and J. Bowyer Bell (note 2).
99. See also Ron Crelinsten (note 2) and J. Bowyer Bell (note 2).
100. See Edward Herman and Gerry O'Sullivan (note 1).