How "New" are "New Wars"? Global Economic Change and the Study of Civil War

Global Governance

Volumn 9, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 477-502

  Beidal, Mats ^a  

^a KING'S COLLEGE LONDON   (United Kingdom)

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0344736858     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00904007     Document Type: Review

References (106)

1. Raymond Aron, War and Industrial Society (London: Oxford University Press, 1958), p. 3.
2. Mary Kaldor and Basker Vashee, eds., New Wars (London: Pinter, 1998); and Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in the Global Era (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 2001). It should be noted at the outset that the argument for "New Wars" does not rest solely, or even principally, on the claim that global economic processes have transformed the nature of warfare. This is, however, one of its more interesting claims, and, crucially for the purpose of this article, it is the one that lends itself, at least in theory, to further empirical investigation.
3. Mary Kaldor and Basker Vashee, eds., New Wars (London: Pinter, 1998); and Mary Kaldor, New and Old Wars: Organized Violence in the Global Era (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 2001). It should be noted at the outset that the argument for "New Wars" does not rest solely, or even principally, on the claim that global economic processes have transformed the nature of warfare. This is, however, one of its more interesting claims, and, crucially for the purpose of this article, it is the one that lends itself, at least in theory, to further empirical investigation.
4. Stathis Kalyvas argues persuasively that much of the writings that seek to establish the "newness" of contemporary civil wars are based on information that is "incomplete and biased." See "'New' and 'Old' Civil Wars: A Valid Distinction?" World Politics 54 (October 2001): 99.
5. Susan Willett, "Globalization and Insecurity," in Susan Willet, ed., Structural Conflict in the New Global Disorder, IDS Bulletin, vol. 32, no. 2, April 2001, p. 5 (henceforth New Global Disorder).
6. Andrew Hurrell, "Explaining the Resurgence of Regionalism in World Politics," Review of International Studies 21, no. 4 (1995): 345 (emphasis in original).
7. Reinhold Nicbuhr, The Children of Light and the Children of Darkness (New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, 1944), p. 158.
8. Willett, "Globalization and Insecurity," p. 1. Likewise, Kaldor speaks of "globalization" as the "intensification of global interconnectedness - political, economic, military and cultural." Kaldor, New and Old Wars, p. 3.
9. Frederick Cooper, "What is the Concept of Globalization Good For? An African Historian's Perspective," African Affairs 100, no. 399 (April 2001): 193.
10. Ibid., p. 192.
11. There are, of course, other global connections to conflict that merit attention but which are beyond the scope of this article. See, for example, Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Curry, 1996), and David Turton, ed., War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence (Rochester, N.Y.: Rochester University Press, 1997).
12. There are, of course, other global connections to conflict that merit attention but which are beyond the scope of this article. See, for example, Paul Richards, Fighting for the Rain Forest: War, Youth and Resources in Sierra Leone (Oxford: James Curry, 1996), and David Turton, ed., War and Ethnicity: Global Connections and Local Violence (Rochester, N.Y.: Rochester University Press, 1997).
13. Peter Evans, "The Eclipse of the State? Reflections of Stateness in an Era of Globalization," World Politics 50, no.1 (October 1997): 65.
14. David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1999), pp. 236-282; and Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 44.
15. David Held, Anthony McGrew, David Goldblatt, and Jonathan Perraton, Global Transformations: Politics, Economics and Culture (Cambridge, Mass.: Polity Press, 1999), pp. 236-282; and Susan Strange, The Retreat of the State: the Diffusion of Power in the World Economy (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 44.
16. Evans, "The Eclipse of the State?" p. 66.
17. Robert Wade, "Globalization and Its Limits: Reports of the Death of the National Economy are Greatly Exaggerated," in Suzanne Berger and Ronald Dore, eds., National Diversity and Global Capitalism (Ithaca, N.Y.: Cornell University Press, 1996), pp. 60-88.
18. Razeen Sally, "Globalization and Policy Response: Three Perspectives," Government and Opposition 35, no. 2 (Spring 2000): 241.
19. Ibid. For the view that we live in an increasingly borderless world, see Kenichi Ohmae, The Borderless World: Power and Strategy in the Interlinked Economy (New York: Harper Collins, 1990).
20. See Raphael Kaplinsky, "Globalization and Economic Insecurity, " in Susan Willet, ed., New Global Disorder, pp. 15-16, and "Global Financial Flows and their Impact on Developing Countries: Addressing the Matter of Volatility," Report of the UN Secretary General, 1998, reprinted (in part) in Barry Herman, Global Financial Turmoil and Reform (Tokyo: UNU Press, 1999), pp. 29-42.
21. See Raphael Kaplinsky, "Globalization and Economic Insecurity, " in Susan Willet, ed., New Global Disorder, pp. 15-16, and "Global Financial Flows and their Impact on Developing Countries: Addressing the Matter of Volatility," Report of the UN Secretary General, 1998, reprinted (in part) in Barry Herman, Global Financial Turmoil and Reform (Tokyo: UNU Press, 1999), pp. 29-42.
22. Morris Miller, "Poverty as a Cause of Wars?" Interdisciplinary Science Review 25, no. 4 (2000): 282.
23. See Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars, Mats Berdal and David Malone, eds., (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000). See also David Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence in Civil Wars, Adelphi Paper 320 (Oxford: Oxford University Press/IISS, 1998).
24. See Greed and Grievance: Economic Agendas in Civil Wars, Mats Berdal and David Malone, eds., (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2000). See also David Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence in Civil Wars, Adelphi Paper 320 (Oxford: Oxford University Press/IISS, 1998).
25. See Philippe Le Billon, "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds, 1975-2000," African Affairs 100, no. 38 (January 2001); Jakkie Cilliers and Christian Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000); and Tony Hodges, Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism (Oxford: James Currey, 2001).
26. See Philippe Le Billon, "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds, 1975-2000," African Affairs 100, no. 38 (January 2001); Jakkie Cilliers and Christian Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000); and Tony Hodges, Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism (Oxford: James Currey, 2001).
27. See Philippe Le Billon, "Angola's Political Economy of War: The Role of Oil and Diamonds, 1975-2000," African Affairs 100, no. 38 (January 2001); Jakkie Cilliers and Christian Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy: The Role of Oil and Diamonds (Pretoria: Institute for Security Studies, 2000); and Tony Hodges, Angola from Afro-Stalinism to Petro-Diamond Capitalism (Oxford: James Currey, 2001).
28. Backcover quote in Fred Bridgland, Jonas Savimbi: A Key to Africa (New York: Paragon Publishers, 1987).
29. Estimates of the value of diamond production in UNITA-controlled territory between 1992 and 2000 cannot be established with any degree of certainty. The most widely used estimate is between U.S.$3 and 4 billion, unevenly distributed by year reflecting the military fortunes of the movement. See also Christian Dietrich, "UNITA's Diamond and Exporting Capacity, " in Cilliers and Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy, pp. 274-290.
30. See Jakkie Potgieter, '"Taking Aid from the Devil Himself - UNITA's Support Structures," Cilliers and Dietrich, eds., in Angola's War Economy, p. 263.
31. Le Billon, "Angola's Political Economy of War," p. 79.
32. "Report of the Panel of Experts on the Illegal Exploitation of Natural Resources and Other Forms of Wealth of the Democratic Republic of Congo," UN Doc. 2/2001/357 (12 April 2001), para. 213, (henceforth "UN Report on Illegal Exploitation in the DRC"), available online at http://www.eldis.org/static/DOC10939.htm.
33. The report largely ignores the role of Zimbabwe that carne to the aid of the DRC government under President Joseph Kabila and whose military also helped itself to the riches of Congo (Zimbabwean troops deployed to the copper and cobalt rich areas in Katanga). See "Branching Out: Zimbabwe's Resource Colonialism in DRC," A Report by Global Witness (Global Witness: London, February 2002).
34. William Reno, "Shadow States and the Political Economy of War, " in Berdal and Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance, p. 57.
35. For background see Adekeye Adebajo, Liberia's Civil War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (London: Hurst and Company, 1999); John L. Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy (New York: International Peace Academy, 2001).
36. For background see Adekeye Adebajo, Liberia's Civil War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (London: Hurst and Company, 1999); John L. Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy (New York: International Peace Academy, 2001).
37. For background see Adekeye Adebajo, Liberia's Civil War (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2002); Stephen Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy: The Destruction of Liberia and the Religious Dimension of an African Civil War (London: Hurst and Company, 1999); John L. Hirsch, Sierra Leone: Diamonds and the Struggle for Democracy (New York: International Peace Academy, 2001).
38. Patrick Chabal and Jean-Pascal Daloz, Africa Works: Disorder as Political Instrument (Oxford: James Curry, 1999), p. 85.
39. Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy, pp. 90-91.
40. Ibid. See also Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence, p. 32, and John Mackinlay, "War Lords," RUSI Journal 143, no. 2 (April 1998): 24-32.
41. Ibid. See also Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence, p. 32, and John Mackinlay, "War Lords," RUSI Journal 143, no. 2 (April 1998): 24-32.
42. Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy, p. 166.
43. Luis Martinez, The Algerian Civil War (London: Hurst and Company, 2000), pp. 16, 119-146.
44. See Mats Berdal and David Keen, "Violence and Economic Agendas in War: Some Policy Implications," Millennium 26, no. 3 (1997).
45. Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence, p. 12.
46. Alex Vines, Angola and Mozambique: The Aftermath of Conflict, Conflict Studies 280 (London: RISCT, 1996), p. 14.
47. See David Rohde, A Safe Area: Srebrenica (London: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 107-109; Brendan O'Shea, Crisis at Bihac: Bosnia's Bloody Battlefield (Basingstoke: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1998); Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 242-258; Final Report of UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), S/1994/674/Annexes, Annex Summaries and Conclusions, UN Document, 1994.
48. See David Rohde, A Safe Area: Srebrenica (London: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 107-109; Brendan O'Shea, Crisis at Bihac: Bosnia's Bloody Battlefield (Basingstoke: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1998); Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 242-258; Final Report of UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), S/1994/674/Annexes, Annex Summaries and Conclusions, UN Document, 1994.
49. See David Rohde, A Safe Area: Srebrenica (London: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 107-109; Brendan O'Shea, Crisis at Bihac: Bosnia's Bloody Battlefield (Basingstoke: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1998); Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 242-258; Final Report of UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), S/1994/674/Annexes, Annex Summaries and Conclusions, UN Document, 1994.
50. See David Rohde, A Safe Area: Srebrenica (London: Simon and Schuster, 1997), pp. 107-109; Brendan O'Shea, Crisis at Bihac: Bosnia's Bloody Battlefield (Basingstoke: Sutton Publishing Limited, 1998); Tim Judah, The Serbs: History, Myth and the Destruction of Yugoslavia (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1997), pp. 242-258; Final Report of UN Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to Security Council Resolution 780 (1992), S/1994/674/Annexes, Annex Summaries and Conclusions, UN Document, 1994.
51. Keen, The Economic Functions of Violence, p. 24.
52. Anthony Clayton, Frontiersmen: Warfare in Africa Since 1950 (London: UCL Press, 1999), p. 195.
53. Martinez, The Algerian Civil War, p. 139.
54. I b i d.
55. Mark Duffield, "Globalization, Transborder Trade and War Economies," in Berdal and Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance, pp. 69-91.
56. Thomas Koppel and Agnes Székely, "Transnational Organized Crime and Conflict in the Balkans," in Mats Berdal and Monica Serrano, eds., Transnational Organized Crime and International Security: Business as Usual? (Boulder: Lynne Rienner, 2002).
57. Barnett R. Rubin, "The Political Economy of War and Peace in Afghanistan," World Development 28, no. 10 (2000): 1790.
58. Jeroen de Zeeuw and Georg Frerks, Proceedings, Seminar on the Political Economy of Internal Conflict, 22 November 2000, Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael), December 2000, p. 5. (Henceforth, "Proceedings Political Economy Seminar"), p. 10.
59. Jeroen de Zeeuw and Georg Frerks, Proceedings, Seminar on the Political Economy of Internal Conflict, 22 November 2000, Netherlands Institute of International Relations (Clingendael), December 2000, p. 5. (Henceforth, "Proceedings Political Economy Seminar"), p. 10.
60. Ellis, The Mask of Anarchy, p. 164.
61. Rubin, "War and Peace in Afghanistan," p. 1796.
62. Ibid., p. 1797.
63. "Proceedings Political Economy Seminar," p. 5.
64. Ioan M. Lewis, "Why the Warlords Won," Times Literary Supplement, 8 June 2001, p. 3.
65. Micheala Wrong, In the Footsteps of Mr. Kurtz: Living on the Brink of Disaster in the Congo (London: HarperCollins Publishers), p. 10.
66. Ibid., p. 4.
67. Aron, War and Industrial Society, p. 53.
68. Hodges, Petro-Diamond Capitalism, p. 18.
69. Carlotte Gall and Thomas de Waal, Chechnya: A Small Victorious War (London: Pan Books, 1997), p. 126.
70. Ibid., p. 126.
71. See comments in "The Economics of War: The Intersection of Need, Creed and Greed," Woodrow Wilson International Center/International Peace Academy Conference Report, September 2001, p. 27.
72. "Final Report of UN Commission/Warring Parties in Bosnia," paragraph 80.
73. See Warren Zimmermann, Origins of a Catastrophe (New York: Random House, 1996) and Drago Hedl, "Living in the Past: Franjo Tudjinan's Croatia, " Current History 99, no. 635 (March 2000).
74. See Warren Zimmermann, Origins of a Catastrophe (New York: Random House, 1996) and Drago Hedl, "Living in the Past: Franjo Tudjinan's Croatia, " Current History 99, no. 635 (March 2000).
75. Kaldor accepts that the "classification of types of wars does not represent hard and fast distinctions." Yet the subsequent analysis remains firmly predicated on the assumption that new wars can be usefully contrasted with those of a historically distinctive era. As Kalyvas shows, disregard for historical research on earlier wars is a distinguishing feature of much of the writings that seek to draw a distinction between older and contemporary civil wars. Kalyvas, "'New' and 'Old' Wars," p. 98.
76. It should be added that those who have contributed to a better understanding of economic agendas have not all been ignorant or dismissive of historical parallels. See, for example, David Keen, "Organized Chaos: Not the New World We Ordered," The World Today 52, no. 1 (January 1996): 16.
77. M. S. Anderson, War and Society in Europe of the Old Regime, 1618-1789 (London: Fontana Paperbacks, 1988), pp. 13-16.
78. R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, in a rich collection of essays, speak of the "violent edge of empire." See R. Brian Ferguson and Neil L. Whitehead, eds., War in the Tribal Zone: Expanding States and Indigenous Warfare (Santa Fe, NM: School of American Research Press, 1992).
79. See Frank Tallett, War and Society in Early Modem Europe, 1495-1715 (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 77, and Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 64-68.
80. See Frank Tallett, War and Society in Early Modem Europe, 1495-1715 (London: Routledge, 1992), p. 77, and Geoffrey Parker, The Military Revolution: Military Innovation and the Rise of the West, 1500-1800 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988), pp. 64-68.
81. Le Billon, "The Political Economy of Resource Wars," p. 39.
82. This may seem self-evident, though it is often neglected, especially in accounts that focus on contemporary "global processes." Concerned not merely with war and conflict, Chabal and Daloz, in a tone of despair, note how "it seems to be the enduring fate of Africa to be 'explained' in terms which are so ahistorical as to be risible." See Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works, p. xviii.
83. Stephen Ellis, "Liberia's Warlord Insurgency" in Christopher Clapham, ed., African Guerrillas (Oxford: James Currey), p. 169.
84. Ibid., p. 169.
85. This is the "central hypothesis" of Martinez's book on the war. See Martinez, The Algerian Civil War, pp. 7-14.
86. Duffield, "Globalization, Transborder Trade, and War Economies," in Berdal and Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance, p. 69.
87. Potgieter, "UNITA's Support Structures," p. 271.
88. I b i d.
89. Johan Peleman, "The Logistics of Sanctions Busting: The Airborne Component," in Cilliers and Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy, pp. 296-297. Johan Peleman was commissioned by the UN Panel of Experts to produce a study of the UNITA "transportation support network." Together with Brian Wood, he has also produced an insightful study of the role of arms brokers and shipping agents. See Brian Wood and Johan Peleman, The Arms Fixers: Controlling the Brokers and Shipping Agents (Oslo: Prio Report 3/99, 1999).
90. Johan Peleman, "The Logistics of Sanctions Busting: The Airborne Component," in Cilliers and Dietrich, eds., Angola's War Economy, pp. 296-297. Johan Peleman was commissioned by the UN Panel of Experts to produce a study of the UNITA "transportation support network." Together with Brian Wood, he has also produced an insightful study of the role of arms brokers and shipping agents. See Brian Wood and Johan Peleman, The Arms Fixers: Controlling the Brokers and Shipping Agents (Oslo: Prio Report 3/99, 1999).
91. Wood and Peleman, The Arms Fixers, p. 14. On the opportunities offered by economic globalization for arms brokers, see also Small Arms Survey Staff, Small Arms Survey 2001 - Profiling the Problem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
92. Wood and Peleman, The Arms Fixers, p. 14. On the opportunities offered by economic globalization for arms brokers, see also Small Arms Survey Staff, Small Arms Survey 2001 - Profiling the Problem (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001).
93. Wood and Peleman, The Arms Fixers, pp. 14-15. See also "Angola: Sanctions Buster," Africa Research Bulletin 37, no. 4 (1999): 14094.
94. Wood and Peleman, The Arms Fixers, pp. 14-15. See also "Angola: Sanctions Buster," Africa Research Bulletin 37, no. 4 (1999): 14094.
95. Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works, p. 87. On the continent's integration into networks of transnational organized crime see also, Jean-François Bayart, Stephen Ellis, and Béatrice Hibou, The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Oxford: James Curry, 1999).
96. Chabal and Daloz, Africa Works, p. 87. On the continent's integration into networks of transnational organized crime see also, Jean-François Bayart, Stephen Ellis, and Béatrice Hibou, The Criminalization of the State in Africa (Oxford: James Curry, 1999).
97. Jeffrey Boutwell, Michael T. Klare, and Laura W. Reed, eds., Lethal Commerce: The Global Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1995); Chris Smith, "Light Weapons Proliferation: A Global Survey," Jane's Intelligence Review Oil, no. 007 (July 1999): 46.
98. Jeffrey Boutwell, Michael T. Klare, and Laura W. Reed, eds., Lethal Commerce: The Global Trade in Small Arms and Light Weapons (Cambridge, MA: American Academy of Arts and Sciences, 1995); Chris Smith, "Light Weapons Proliferation: A Global Survey," Jane's Intelligence Review Oil, no. 007 (July 1999): 46.
99. As the "Angolagate" scandal in France has shown, it is not only neighboring states that have been prepared to violate the sanctions regime. See François Misser, "The Angolagate Scandal," African Business, no. 265, May 2001, pp. 8-11.
100. Le Billon, "Angola's Political Economy of War," p. 79.
101. For an excellent survey of the state of literature see Karin Ballentine, "Critical Issues in the Political Economy of Civil War: Causes, Dynamics, and Prospects," Paper presented at Swiss Peace Foundation Workshop, 28-29 June 2001, Berne (I am grateful for permission to cite the paper).
102. According to de Zeeuw and Frerks the "flows of remittances, voluntary or forced, generated by diaspora groups have been analyzed by some but little is known about the volume of resources involved. The use of migrant remittances in general and the ways in which such financial transfers impact on internal conflict remain as yet unstudied." See "Proceedings Political Economy Seminar," p. 13.
103. Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, "Conflict and Crisis in the Greater Horn of Africa," Current History 98, no. 628 (May 1999): 215. See also Frances Stewart and Emma Samman, "Food Aid During Civil War," in Frances Stewart and Valpy Fitzgerald, eds., War and Underdevelopment, Vol.1, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 169-179.
104. Ken Menkhaus and John Prendergast, "Conflict and Crisis in the Greater Horn of Africa," Current History 98, no. 628 (May 1999): 215. See also Frances Stewart and Emma Samman, "Food Aid During Civil War," in Frances Stewart and Valpy Fitzgerald, eds., War and Underdevelopment, Vol.1, (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2001), pp. 169-179.
105. See David Shearer, "Aiding or Abetting? Humanitarian Aid and Its Economic Role in Civil War," in Berdal and Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance, pp. 189-203. See also Jane Hoverd, "Humanitarian Action in Bosnia: A Study of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1991-1999" (Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 2001).
106. See David Shearer, "Aiding or Abetting? Humanitarian Aid and Its Economic Role in Civil War," in Berdal and Malone, eds., Greed and Grievance, pp. 189-203. See also Jane Hoverd, "Humanitarian Action in Bosnia: A Study of the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees, 1991-1999" (Ph.D. diss., Oxford University, 2001).