Socio-economic status, family disruption and residential stability in childhood: Relation to onset, recurrence and remission of major depression

Psychological Medicine

Volumn 33, Issue 8, 2003, Pages 1341-1355

  Gilman, Stephen E ^a,b   Kawachi, I ^a,b   Fitzmaurice, G M ^a,b   Buka, S L ^a,b  

^a HARVARD SCHOOL OF PUBLIC HEALTH   (United States)

^b BROWN UNIVERSITY   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ADULT; ARTICLE; CHILDHOOD; COHORT ANALYSIS; CONTROLLED STUDY; DISEASE ASSOCIATION; DISEASE SEVERITY; FAMILY LIFE; FEMALE; HUMAN; INTERVIEW; MAJOR CLINICAL STUDY; MAJOR DEPRESSION; MALE; RECURRENT DISEASE; REGRESSION ANALYSIS; REMISSION; RESIDENTIAL HOME; RISK FACTOR; SOCIAL STATUS; SURVIVAL;

ADOLESCENT; ADULT; CHILD; CHRONIC DISEASE; COHORT STUDIES; DEPRESSIVE DISORDER, MAJOR; FAMILY CHARACTERISTICS; FEMALE; HUMANS; LIFE CHANGE EVENTS; LONGITUDINAL STUDIES; MALE; PERSONALITY DEVELOPMENT; RECURRENCE; RESIDENTIAL MOBILITY; RHODE ISLAND; SOCIOECONOMIC FACTORS;

EID: 0344035457     PISSN: 00332917     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1017/S0033291703008377     Document Type: Article

References (104)

1. Abramson, L. Y., Seligman, M. E. & Teasdale, J. D. (1978). Learned helplessness in humans: critique and reformulation. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 87, 49-74.
2. Amato, P. R. (1991). Parental absence during childhood and depression in later life. Sociological Quarterly 32, 543-556.
3. Amato, P. R. (1993). Children's adjustment to divorce: theories, hypotheses, and empirical support. Journal of Marriage and the Family 55, 23-28.
4. Amato, P. R. (2001). Children of divorce in the 1990s: an update of the Amato and Keith (1991) meta-analysis. Journal of Family Psychology 15, 355-370.
5. Andrade, L., Eaton, W. W. & Chilcoat, H. D. (1996). Lifetime co-morbidity of panic attacks and major depression in a population-based study: age of onset. Psychological Medicine 26, 991-996.
6. Angold, A. & Worthman, C. W. (1993). Puberty onset of gender differences in rates of depression: a developmental, epidemiologic and neuroendocrine perspective. Journal of Affective Disorders 29, 145-158.
7. Aseltine, R. H. Jr. (1996). Pathways linking parental divorce with adolescent depression. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 37, 133-148.
8. Beardslee, W. R., Keller, M. B., Lavori, P. W., Staley, J. & Sacks, N. (1993). The impact of parental affective disorder on depression in offspring: a longitudinal follow-up in a nonreferred sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 32, 723-730.
9. Berndt, E. R., Koran, L. M., Finkelstein, S. N., Gelenberg, A. J., Kornstein, S. G., Miller, I. M., Thase, M. E., Trapp, G. A. & Keller, M. B. (2000). Lost human capital from early-onset chronic depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 940-947.
10. Billings, A. G. & Moos, R. H. (1986). Children of parents with unipolar depression: a controlled 1-year follow-up. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology 14, 149-166.
11. Bowlby, J. (1977). The making and breaking of affectional bonds. I. Aetiology and psychopathology in the light of attachment theory. An expanded version of the Fiftieth Maudsley Lecture, delivered before the Royal College of Psychiatrists, 19 November 1976. British Journal of Psychiatry 130, 201-210.
12. Bracke, P. (1998). Sex differences in the course of depression: evidence from a longitudinal study of a representative sample of the Belgian population. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology 33, 420-429.
13. Breslow, N. E. (1974). Covariance analysis of censored survival data. Biometrics 30, 89-100.
14. Buka, S. L. & Gilman, S. E. (2002). Psychopathology and the life course. In Defining Psychopathology, in the 21st Century: DSM-V and Beyond (ed. J. E. Helzer and J. J. Hudziak), pp. 129-141. American Psychiatric Press: Washington, DC.
15. Buka, S. L., Satz, P., Seidman, L. & Lipsitt, L. (1998). Defining learning disabilities: the role of longitudinal studies. Thalamus 16, 14-29.
16. Buka. S. L., Tsuang, M. T. & Lipsitt, L. P. (1993). Pregnancy/delivery complications and psychiatric diagnosis. A prospective study. Archives of General Psychiatry 50, 151-156.
17. Cadoret, R. J., Woolson, R. & Winokur, G. (1977). The relationship of age onset in unipolar affective disorder to risk of alcoholism and depression in parents. Journal of Psychiatric Research 13, 137-142.
18. Calev, A. (1996). Affect and memory in depression: evidence of better delayed recall of positive than negative affect words. Psychopathology 29, 71-76.
19. Cherlin, A. J., Chase-Lansdale, P. L. & McRae, C. (1998). Effects of parental divorce on mental health throughout the life course. American Sociological Review 63, 239-249.
20. Chorpita, B. F. & Barlow, D. H. (1998). The development of anxiety: the role of control in the early environment. Psychological Bulletin 124, 3-21.
21. Christie, K. A., Burke, J. D. Jr., Regier, D. A., Rae, D. S., Boyd, J. H. & Locke, B. Z. (1988). Epidemiologic evidence for early onset of mental disorders and higher risk of drug abuse in young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry 145, 971-975.
22. Cohen, P., Brook, J. S., Cohen, J., Velez, N. & Garcia, M. (1990). 0Common and uncommon pathways to adolescent psychopathology and problem behaviour. In Straight and Devious Pathways from Childhood to Adulthood (ed. L. N. Robins and M. Rutter), pp. 242-258. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
23. DeWit, D. J. (1998). Frequent childhood geographic relocation: its impact on drug use initiation and the development of alcohol and other drug-related problems among adolescents and young adults. Addictive Behaviors 23, 623-634.
24. Eggebeen, D. J. & Lichter, D. T. (1991). Race, family structure, and changing poverty among American children. American Sociological Review 56, 801-817.
25. Erdman, H. P., Klein, M. H., Greist, J. H., Bass, S. M., Bires, J. K. & Machtinger, P. E. (1987). A comparison of the Diagnostic Interview Schedule and clinical diagnosis. American Journal of Psychiatry 144, 1477-1480.
26. Farrer, L. A., Florio, L. P., Bruce, M. L., Leaf, P. J. & Weissman, M. M. (1989). Reliability of self-reported age at onset of major depression. Journal of Psychiatric Research 23, 35-47.
27. Fergusson, D. M., Horwood, L. J. & Lynskey, M. T. (1994). Parental separation, adolescent psychopathology, and problem behaviors. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry 33, 1122-1131.
28. Fitzmaurice, G. M., Heath, A. F. & Cox, D. R. (1997). Detecting overdispersion in large scale surveys: application to a study of education and social class in Britain. Applied Statistics 46, 415-432.
29. Flint, A. J. & Rifat, S. L. (1999). Recurrence of first-episode geriatric depression after discontinuation of maintenance antidepressants. American Journal of Psychiatry 156, 943-945.
30. Giaconia, R. M., Reinherz, H. Z., Silverman, A. B., Pakiz, B., Frost, A. K. & Cohen, E. (1994). Ages of onset of psychiatric disorders in a community population of older adolescents. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 33, 706-717.
31. Giles, D. E., Jarrett, R. B., Biggs, M. M., Guzick, D. S. & Rush, A. J. (1989). Clinical predictors of recurrence in depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 146, 764-767.
32. Gilman, S. E. & Abraham, H. D. (2001). A longitudinal study of the order of onset of alcohol dependence and major depression. Drug & Alcohol Dependence 63, 277-286.
33. Gilman, S. E., Kawachi, I., Fitzmaurice, G. M. & Buka, S. L. (2002). Socioeconomic status in childhood and the lifetime risk of major depression. International Journal of Epidemiology 31, 359-367.
34. Gilman, S. E., Kawachi, I., Fitzmaurice, G. M. & Buka, S. L. (2003). Family disruption in childhood and risk of adult depression. American Journal of Psychiatry 160, 939-946.
35. Harrington, R., Rutter, M., Weissman, M., Fudge, H., Groothues, C., Bredenkamp, D., Pickles, A., Rende, R. & Wickramaratne, P. (1997). Psychiatric disorders in the relatives of depressed probands. I. Comparison of prepubertal, adolescent and early adult onset cases. Journal of Affective Disorders 42, 9-22.
36. Harris, T. O., Brown, G. W. & Bifulco, A. T. (1990). Depression and situational helplessness/mastery in a sample selected to study childhood parental loss. Journal of Affective Disorders 20, 27-41.
37. Haveman, R., Wolfe, B. & Spaulding, J. (1991). Childhood events and circumstances influencing high school completion. Demography 28, 133-157.
38. Hendershott, A. B. (1989). Residential mobility, social support and adolescent self-concept. Adolescence 24, 217-232.
39. Henry, B., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Langley, J. & Silva, P. A. (1994). On the 'remembrance of things past': a longitudinal evaluation of the retrospective method. Psychological Assessment 6, 92-101.
40. Hertzman, C. & Wiens, M. (1996). Child development and long-term outcomes: a population health perspective and summary of successful interventions. Social Science & Medicine 43, 1083-1095.
41. Hetherington, E. M. & Stanley-Hagan, M. (1999). The adjustment of children with divorced parents: a risk and resiliency perspective. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines 40, 129-140.
42. Hetherington, E. M., Stanley-Hagan, M. & Anderson, E. R. (1989). Marital transitions. A child's perspective. American Psychologist 44, 303-312.
43. Humke, C. & Schaefer, C. (1995). Relocation: a review of the effects of residentail mobility on children and adolescents. Psychology: A Journal of Human Behavior 32, 18-24.
44. Jaffee,. S. R., Moffitt, T. E., Caspi, A., Fombonne, E., Poulton, R. & Martin, J. (2002). Differences in early childhood risk factors for juvenile-onset and adult-onset depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 59, 215-222.
45. Johnson, J. G., Cohen, P., Dohrenwend, B. P., Link, B. G. & Brook, J. S. (1999). A longitudinal investigation of social causation and social selection processes involved in the association between socioeconomic status and psychiatric disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 108, 490-499.
46. Kasch, K. L. & Klein, D. N. (1996). The relationship between age at onset and comorbidity in psychiatric disorders. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 184, 703-707.
47. Kaufman, J., Martin, A., King, R. A. & Charney, D. (2001). Are child-, adolescent-, and adult-onset depression one and the same disorder? Biological Psychiatry 49, 980-1101.
48. Keitner, G. I., Ryan, C. E., Miller, I. W. & Norman, W. H. (1992). Recovery and major depression: factors associated with twelve-month outcome. American of Psychiatry 149, 93-99.
49. Kendler, K. S., Thornton, L. M. & Gardner, C. O. (2000). Stressful life events and previous episodes in the etiology of major depression in women: an evaluation of the 'kindling' hypothesis. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1243-1251.
50. Kessing, L. V., Andersen, E. W. & Andersen, P. K. (2000). Predictors of recurrence in affective disorder - analyses account for individual heterogeneity. Journal of Affective Disorders 57, 139-145.
51. Kessler, R. C., Davis, C. G. & Kendler, K. S. (1997). Childhood adversity and adult psychiatric disorder in the US National Comorbidity Survey. Psychological of Medicine 27, 1101-1119.
52. Kessler, R. C. & Magee, W. J. (1993). Childhood adversities and adult depression: basic patterns of association in a US national survey. Psychological Medicine 23, 679-690.
53. Kessler, R. C. & Magee, W. J. (1994). Childhood family violence and adult recurrent depression. Journal of Health & Social Behavior 35, 13-27.
54. Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Swartz, M., Blazer, D. G. & Nelson, C. B. (1993). Sex and depression in the National Comorbidity Survey. I: Lifetime prevalence, chronicity and recurrence. Journal of Affective Disorders 29, 85-96.
55. Kessler, R. C., McGonagle, K. A., Zhao, S., Nelson, C. B., Hughes, M., Eshleman, S., Wittchen, H. U. & Kendler, K. S. (1994). Lifetime and 12-month prevalence of DSM-III-R psychiatric disorders in the United States. Results from the National Comorbidity Survey. Archives of General Psychiatry 51, 8-19.
56. Klein, D. N., Schatzberg, A. F.. McCullough, J. P., Dowling, F., Goodman, D., Howland, R. H., Markowitz, J. C., Smith, C., Thase, M. E., Rush, A. J., LaVange, L., Harrison, W. M. & Keller, M. B. (1999 . Age of onset in chronic major depression: relation to demographic and clinical variables, family history, and treatment response. Journal of Affective Disorders 55, 149-157.
57. Kovacs, M. (1996). Presentation and course of major depressive disorder during childhood and later years of the life span. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 35, 705-715.
58. Kovacs, M., Devlin, B., Pollock, M., Richards, C. & Mukerji, P. (1997). A controlled family history study of childhood-onset depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 54, 613-623.
59. Kuyken, W. & Brewin, C. R. (1995). Autobiographical memory functioning in depression and reports of early abuse. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 104, 585-591.
60. Lewinsohn, P. M., Clarke, G. N., Seeley, J. R. & Rohde, P. (1994). Major depression in community adolescents: age at onset, episode duration, and time to recurrence. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 33, 809-818.
61. Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R. & Fischer, S. A. (1993). Age-cohort changes in the lifetime occurrence of depression and other mental disorders. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 102, 110-120.
62. Lewinsohn, P. M., Rohde, P., Seeley, J. R., Klein, D. N. & Gotlib, I. H. (2000). Natural course of adolescent major depressive disorder in a community sample: predictors of recurrence in young adults. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 1584-1591.
63. Lundberg, O. (1993). The impact of childhood living conditions on illness and mortality in adulthood. Social Science and Medicine 36, 1047-1052.
64. McCullagh, P. & Nelder, J. A. (1989). Generalized Linear Models. Chapman and Hall: London.
65. McLeod, J. D., Kessler, R. C. & Landis, K. R. (1992). Speed of recovery from major depressive episodes in a community sample of married men and women. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 101, 277-286.
66. McLeod, J. D. & Shanahan, M. J. (1993). Poverty, parenting, and children's mental health. American Sociological Review 58, 351-366.
67. McLeod, J. D. & Shanahan, M. J. (1996). Trajectories of poverty and children's mental health. Journal of Health and Social Behavior 37, 207-220.
68. Muntaner, C., Eaton, W. W., Diala, C., Kessler, R. C. & Sorlie, P. D. (1998). Social class, assets, organizational control and the prevalence of common groups of psychiatric disorders. Social Science & Medicine 47, 2043-2053.
69. Murphy, J. M., Olivier, D. C., Monson, R. R., Sobol, A. M., Federman, E. B. & Leighton, A. H. (1991). Depression and anxiety in relation to social status. A prospective epidemiologic study. Archives of General Psychiatry 48, 223-229.
70. Niswander, K. R. & Gordon, M. (1972). The Women and Their Pregnancies: The Collaborative Perinatal Study of the National Institute of Neurological Diseases and Stroke. National Institute of Health: Washington, DC.
71. Oliver, J. M. & Simmons, M. E. (1985). Affective disorders and depression as measured by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule and the Beck Depression Inventory in an unselected adult population. Journal of Clinical Psychology 41, 469-477.
72. Orvaschel, H. (1990). Early onset psychiatric disorder in high risk children and increased familial morbidity. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 29, 184-188.
73. Parker, G., Wilhelm, K. & Asghari, A. (1997). Early onset depression: the relevance of anxiety. Social Psychiatry & Psychiatric Epidemiology 32, 30-37.
74. Philibert, R. A., Richards, L., Lynch, C. F. & Winokur, G. (1997). The effect of gender and age at onset of depression on mortality. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry 58, 355-360.
75. Power, C. (1991). Social and economic background and class inequalities in health among young adults. Social Science and Medicine 32, 411-417.
76. Power, C. & Hertzman, C. (1997). Social and biological pathways linking early life and adult disease. British Medical Bulletin 53, 210-221.
77. Power, C., Hertzman, C., Matthews, S. & Manor, O. (1997). Social differences in health: life-cycle effects between ages 23 and 33 in the 1958 British birth cohort. American Journal of Public Health 87, 1499-1503.
78. Power, C. & Matthews, S. (1997). Origins of health inequalities in a national population sample. Lancet 350, 1584-1589.
79. Prusoff, B. A., Merikangas, K. R. & Weissman, M. M. (1988). Lifetime prevalence and age of onset of psychiatric disorders: recall 4 years later. Journal of Psychiatric Research 22, 107-117.
80. Puig-Antich, J., Goetz, D., Davies, M., Kaplan, T., Davies, S., Ostrow, L., Asnis, L., Twomey, J., Iyengar, S. & Ryan, N. D. (1989). A controlled family history study of prepubertal major depressive disorder. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 406-418.
81. Reynolds, C. F., 3rd, Dew, M. A., Frank, E., Begley, A. E., Miller, M. D., Cornes, C., Mazumdar, S., Perel, J. M. & Kupfer, D. J. (1998). Effects of age at onset of first lifetime episode of recurrent major depression on treatment response and illness course in elderly patients. American Journal of Psychiatry 155, 795-799.
82. Robins, L. N., Helzer, J. E., Croughan, J. & Ratcliff, K. S. (1981). National Institute of Mental Health Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Its history, characteristics, and validity. Archives of General Psychiatry 38, 381-389.
83. Rodgers, B. (1994). Pathways between parental divorce and adult depression. Journal of Child Psychology & Psychiatry & Allied Disciplines 35, 1289-1308.
84. Rogler, L. H., Malgady, R. G. & Tryon, W. W. (1992). Evaluation of mental health. Issues of memory in the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. Journal of Nervous & Mental Disease 180, 215-222, 223-226.
85. Rohde, P., Lewinsohn, P. M. & Seeley, J. R. (1991). Comorbidity of unipolar depression: II. Comorbidity with other mental disorders in adolescents and adults. Journal of Abnormal Psychology 100, 214-222.
86. Ross, C. E. & Mirowsky, J. (1999). Parental divorce, life-course disruption, and adult depression. Journal of Marriage & the Family 61, 1034-1045.
87. Sadowski, H., Ugarte, B., Kolvin, I., Kaplan, C. & Barnes, J. (1999). Early life family disadvantages and major depression in adulthood. British Journal of Psychiatry 174, 112-120.
88. SAS Institute (1999). SAS User's Guide, Version 8. SAS Institute: Cary, NC.
89. Silberg, J., Pickles, A., Rutter, M., Hewitt, J., Simonoff, E., Maes, H., Carbonneau, R., Murrelle, L., Foley, D. & Eaves, L. 1999). The influence of genetic factors and life stress on depression among adolescent girls. Archives of General Psychiatry 56, 225-232.
90. Simpson, G. A. & Fowler, M. G. (1994). Geographic mobility and children's emotional/behavioral adjustment and school functioning. Pediatrics 93, 303-309.
91. Solomon, D. A., Keller, M. B., Leon, A. C., Mueller, T. I., Lavori, P. W., Shea, M. T., Coryell, W., Warshaw, M., Turvey, C., Maser, J. D. & Endicott, J. (2000). Multiple recurrences of major depressive disorder. American Journal of Psychiatry 157, 229-233.
92. Steffens, D. C., Hays, J. C., George, L. K., Krishnan, K. R. & Blazer, D. G. (1996). Sociodemographic and clinical correlates of number of previous depressive episodes in the depressed elderly. Journal of Affective Disorders 39, 99-106.
93. Stoneman, Z., Brody, G. H., Churchill, S. L. & Winn, L. L. (1999). Effects of residential instability on Head Start children and their relationships with older siblings: influences of child emotionality and conflict between family caregivers. Child Development 70, 1246-1262.
94. Thapar, A. & McGuffin, P. (1994). A twin study of depressive symptoms in childhood. British Journal of Psychiatry 165, 259-265.
95. US Bureau of the Census (1963). US Bureau of the Census: Washington, DC.
96. Wainwright, N. W. J. & Surtees, P. G. (2002). Childhood adversity, gender and depression over the life-course. Journal of Affective Disorders 72, 33-44.
97. Warner, V., Weissman, M. M., Mufson, L. & Wickramaratne, P. J. (1999). Grandparents, parents, and grandchildren at high risk for depression: a three-generation study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 38, 289-296.
98. Wei, L. J. (1992). The accelerated failure time model: a useful alternative to the Cox regression model in survival analysis. Statistics in Medicine 11, 1871-1879.
99. Weissman, M. M. & Klerman, G. L. (1977). Sex differences and the epidemiology of depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 34, 98-111.
100. Weissman, M. M., Wickramaratne, P., Merikangas, K. R., Leckman, J. F., Prusoff, B. A., Caruso, K. A., Kidd, K. K. & Gammon, G. D. (1984). Onset of major depression in early adulthood. Increased familial loading and specificity. Archives of General Psychiatry 41, 1136-1143.
101. Weissman, M. M., Gammon, G. D., John, K., Merikangas, K. R., Warner, V., Prusoff, B. A. & Sholomskas, D. (1987). Children of depressed parents. Increased psychopathology and early onset of major depression. Archives of General Psychiatry 44, 847-853.
102. Weissman, M. M., Warner, V., Wickramaratne, P. & Prusoff, B. A. (1988). Early-onset major depression in parents and their children. Journal of Affective Disorders 15, 269-277.
103. Wittchen, H. U., Burke, J. D., Semler, G., Pfister, H., Von Cranach, M. & Zaudig, M. (1989). Recall and dating of psychiatric symptoms. Test-retest reliability of time-related symptom questions in a standardized psychiatric interview. Archives of General Psychiatry 46, 437-443.
104. Wood, D., Halton, N., Scarlata, D., Newacheck, P. & Nessim, S. (1993). Impact of family relocation on children's growth, development, school function, and behavior. Journal of the American Medical Association 270, 1334-1338.