Institutional Explanations of Union Strength: An Assessment

Politics and Society

Volumn 31, Issue 4, 2003, Pages 609-635

  Oskarsson, Sven ^a  

^a UPPSALA UNIVERSITY   (Sweden)

Author keywords

Centralization; Industrial relations; Institutions; Unionization; Workplace access

Indexed keywords

EID: 0242719729     PISSN: 00323292     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1177/0032329203256955     Document Type: Review

References (124)

1. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
2. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
3. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
4. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
5. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
6. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
7. Jelle Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership, in OECD Employment Outlook (Paris: OECD, 1991); Jelle Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ? in The Future of Industrial Relations: Global Changes and Challenges, ed. J. R. Niland, R. D. Lansbury, and C. Vervivis (Thousand Oaks, Calif.: Sage, 1994), 164-84; Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, When Institutions Matter: Union Growth and Decline in Western Europe, 1950-1995, European Sociological Review 2, no. 15 (1999): 135-58; Michael Wallerstein, Union Organization in Advanced Industrial Democracies, American Political Science Review 83, no. 2 (1989): 481-501 ; Bo Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, Politics & Society 18, no. 2 (1989): 317-46; Anders Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering i Tolv Länder (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1983); Anders Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer och Medlemmar i Dagens Sverige (Lund: Arkiv Förlag, 1991).
8. Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market. Postwar Unionization in the Capitalist Countries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
9. Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market. Postwar Unionization in the Capitalist Countries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
10. Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market. Postwar Unionization in the Capitalist Countries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
11. Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Bruce Western, Between Class and Market. Postwar Unionization in the Capitalist Countries (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1997).
12. Bruce Western, Institutional Mechanisms for Unionization in Sixteen OECD Countries: An Analysis of Social Survey Data, Social Forces 73, no. 2 (1994): 497-519.
13. Density figures for Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States are taken from Miriam Golden, Peter Lange, and Michael Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining and Industrial Relations for 16 OECD Countries 1950-1992 (1997; data and codebook can be downloaded at http://emma.sscnet.ucla.edu/data/); for New Zealand from Seymour Martin Lipset and Ivan Katchanovski, Corporatism, Left Government and Union Density in Advanced Western Countries, unpublished paper, George Mason University, V.I., 2000; for Greece, Portugal, and Spain from Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; and for the remaining countries from Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, The Societies of Europe. Trade Unions in Western Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Macmillan Reference, 2000).
14. Density figures for Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States are taken from Miriam Golden, Peter Lange, and Michael Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining and Industrial Relations for 16 OECD Countries 1950-1992 (1997; data and codebook can be downloaded at http://emma.sscnet.ucla.edu/data/); for New Zealand from Seymour Martin Lipset and Ivan Katchanovski, Corporatism, Left Government and Union Density in Advanced Western Countries, unpublished paper, George Mason University, V.I., 2000; for Greece, Portugal, and Spain from Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; and for the remaining countries from Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, The Societies of Europe. Trade Unions in Western Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Macmillan Reference, 2000).
15. Density figures for Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States are taken from Miriam Golden, Peter Lange, and Michael Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining and Industrial Relations for 16 OECD Countries 1950-1992 (1997; data and codebook can be downloaded at http://emma.sscnet.ucla.edu/data/); for New Zealand from Seymour Martin Lipset and Ivan Katchanovski, Corporatism, Left Government and Union Density in Advanced Western Countries, unpublished paper, George Mason University, V.I., 2000; for Greece, Portugal, and Spain from Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; and for the remaining countries from Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, The Societies of Europe. Trade Unions in Western Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Macmillan Reference, 2000).
16. Density figures for Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States are taken from Miriam Golden, Peter Lange, and Michael Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining and Industrial Relations for 16 OECD Countries 1950-1992 (1997; data and codebook can be downloaded at http://emma.sscnet.ucla.edu/data/); for New Zealand from Seymour Martin Lipset and Ivan Katchanovski, Corporatism, Left Government and Union Density in Advanced Western Countries, unpublished paper, George Mason University, V.I., 2000; for Greece, Portugal, and Spain from Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; and for the remaining countries from Bernhard Ebbinghaus and Jelle Visser, The Societies of Europe. Trade Unions in Western Europe since 1945 (Oxford: Macmillan Reference, 2000).
17. Richard Disney, Explanations of the Decline in Trade Union Density in Britain: An Appraisal, British Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 2 (1990): 165-77.
18. Spearmans rho, statistically significant at the .01 level.
19. Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
20. Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
21. Claus Offe, Disorganized Capitalism: Transformations of Work and Politics (Oxford: Polity Press, 1985); Franz Traxler, Sabine Blaschke, and Bernhard Kittel, National Labour Relations in Internationalized Markets. A Cross-national Analysis of Institutional Patterns, Change and Performance (Oxford :Oxford University Press, 2001).
22. Claus Offe, Disorganized Capitalism: Transformations of Work and Politics (Oxford: Polity Press, 1985); Franz Traxler, Sabine Blaschke, and Bernhard Kittel, National Labour Relations in Internationalized Markets. A Cross-national Analysis of Institutional Patterns, Change and Performance (Oxford :Oxford University Press, 2001).
23. Bruce Western, Postwar Unionization in Eighteen Advanced Capitalist Countries, American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (1993): 266-82; Western, Between Class and Market; Richard B. Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism in Developed Countries, NBER working paper no. 2817, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
24. Bruce Western, Postwar Unionization in Eighteen Advanced Capitalist Countries, American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (1993): 266-82; Western, Between Class and Market; Richard B. Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism in Developed Countries, NBER working paper no. 2817, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
25. Bruce Western, Postwar Unionization in Eighteen Advanced Capitalist Countries, American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (1993): 266-82; Western, Between Class and Market; Richard B. Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism in Developed Countries, NBER working paper no. 2817, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
26. Bruce Western, Postwar Unionization in Eighteen Advanced Capitalist Countries, American Sociological Review 58, no. 1 (1993): 266-82; Western, Between Class and Market; Richard B. Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism in Developed Countries, NBER working paper no. 2817, Cambridge, Mass., 1989; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
27. Another aspect of the bargaining system that could be relevant for my argument is the existence of laws or practices that extend contractual coverage to workers in nonunion firms. However, I will not test the impact of these arrangements on the degree of union density in this article, even though they are conceptually distinct from the concept of bargaining centralization. The reason is quite mundane. The countries in which extension practices exist also are characterized by a high degree of wage-bargaining centralization. That is, it will be practically impossible to estimate the effects of bargaining centralization and extension practices at the same time.
28. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market.
29. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market.
30. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market.
31. Lyle Scruggs, The Ghent System and Union Membership in Europe, 1970-1995, Political Research Quarterly 55, no. 2 (2002): 275-97.
32. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Bob Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe, 1960-1990: Rediscovering Local Unions, British Journal of Industrial Relations 31, no. 4 (1993): 593-613; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
33. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Bob Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe, 1960-1990: Rediscovering Local Unions, British Journal of Industrial Relations 31, no. 4 (1993): 593-613; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
34. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Bob Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe, 1960-1990: Rediscovering Local Unions, British Journal of Industrial Relations 31, no. 4 (1993): 593-613; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
35. An obvious objection against this argument is of course to question the causal order between institutions and unionization. Did institutions precede mass unionization or was it already strongly unionized countries that introduced union-friendly institutions? Fortunately, the literature on the subject supports the former interpretation. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, has shown that there is no correlation between the strength of the union movement and type unemployment insurance systems at the time of its introduction. When it comes to centralization and the local capacity of the union movement, a number of country-specific studies have shown that changing union density levels follows institutional reforms. For example, Great Britain under Thatcher experienced decentralization of the bargaining system and far-reaching legal circumscription of the union role at the workplace accompanied by plunging density rates (Chris Howell, Constructing Industrial Relations: The British State and Industrial Relations Reform Since 1890, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 1997; Richard B. Freeman and Jeffrey Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations Legislation on British Union Density, British Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 2 (1990): 141-64). In Austria the union movement has lost some of its attraction to potential members as the ØGB confederation no longer has the sole right to offer powerful selective incentives in the form of representation in labor court proceedings, individual advice, and training courses (Franz Traxler, Still the Country of Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations in Europe, ed. Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman [Oxford: Blackwell, 1998], 239-61). In Finland, on the other hand, the centralization of the industrial relations system and the unification of the labor movement some thirty years ago were followed by rocketing unionization levels (Kari Lilja, Finland: Continuity and Modest Moves Towards Company-level Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations, 171-89.
36. An obvious objection against this argument is of course to question the causal order between institutions and unionization. Did institutions precede mass unionization or was it already strongly unionized countries that introduced union-friendly institutions? Fortunately, the literature on the subject supports the former interpretation. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, has shown that there is no correlation between the strength of the union movement and type unemployment insurance systems at the time of its introduction. When it comes to centralization and the local capacity of the union movement, a number of country-specific studies have shown that changing union density levels follows institutional reforms. For example, Great Britain under Thatcher experienced decentralization of the bargaining system and far-reaching legal circumscription of the union role at the workplace accompanied by plunging density rates (Chris Howell, Constructing Industrial Relations: The British State and Industrial Relations Reform Since 1890, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 1997; Richard B. Freeman and Jeffrey Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations Legislation on British Union Density, British Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 2 (1990): 141-64). In Austria the union movement has lost some of its attraction to potential members as the ØGB confederation no longer has the sole right to offer powerful selective incentives in the form of representation in labor court proceedings, individual advice, and training courses (Franz Traxler, Still the Country of Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations in Europe, ed. Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman [Oxford: Blackwell, 1998], 239-61). In Finland, on the other hand, the centralization of the industrial relations system and the unification of the labor movement some thirty years ago were followed by rocketing unionization levels (Kari Lilja, Finland: Continuity and Modest Moves Towards Company-level Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations, 171-89.
37. An obvious objection against this argument is of course to question the causal order between institutions and unionization. Did institutions precede mass unionization or was it already strongly unionized countries that introduced union-friendly institutions? Fortunately, the literature on the subject supports the former interpretation. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, has shown that there is no correlation between the strength of the union movement and type unemployment insurance systems at the time of its introduction. When it comes to centralization and the local capacity of the union movement, a number of country-specific studies have shown that changing union density levels follows institutional reforms. For example, Great Britain under Thatcher experienced decentralization of the bargaining system and far-reaching legal circumscription of the union role at the workplace accompanied by plunging density rates (Chris Howell, Constructing Industrial Relations: The British State and Industrial Relations Reform Since 1890, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 1997; Richard B. Freeman and Jeffrey Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations Legislation on British Union Density, British Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 2 (1990): 141-64). In Austria the union movement has lost some of its attraction to potential members as the ØGB confederation no longer has the sole right to offer powerful selective incentives in the form of representation in labor court proceedings, individual advice, and training courses (Franz Traxler, Still the Country of Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations in Europe, ed. Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman [Oxford: Blackwell, 1998], 239-61). In Finland, on the other hand, the centralization of the industrial relations system and the unification of the labor movement some thirty years ago were followed by rocketing unionization levels (Kari Lilja, Finland: Continuity and Modest Moves Towards Company-level Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations, 171-89.
38. An obvious objection against this argument is of course to question the causal order between institutions and unionization. Did institutions precede mass unionization or was it already strongly unionized countries that introduced union-friendly institutions? Fortunately, the literature on the subject supports the former interpretation. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power, has shown that there is no correlation between the strength of the union movement and type unemployment insurance systems at the time of its introduction. When it comes to centralization and the local capacity of the union movement, a number of country-specific studies have shown that changing union density levels follows institutional reforms. For example, Great Britain under Thatcher experienced decentralization of the bargaining system and far-reaching legal circumscription of the union role at the workplace accompanied by plunging density rates (Chris Howell, Constructing Industrial Relations: The British State and Industrial Relations Reform Since 1890, paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, August 1997; Richard B. Freeman and Jeffrey Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations Legislation on British Union Density, British Journal of Industrial Relations 28, no. 2 (1990): 141-64). In Austria the union movement has lost some of its attraction to potential members as the ØGB confederation no longer has the sole right to offer powerful selective incentives in the form of representation in labor court proceedings, individual advice, and training courses (Franz Traxler, Still the Country of Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations in Europe, ed. Anthony Ferner and Richard Hyman [Oxford: Blackwell, 1998], 239-61). In Finland, on the other hand, the centralization of the industrial relations system and the unification of the labor movement some thirty years ago were followed by rocketing unionization levels (Kari Lilja, Finland: Continuity and Modest Moves Towards Company-level Corporatism, in Changing Industrial Relations, 171-89.
39. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
40. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
41. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
42. Rothstein, Marxism, Institutional Analysis and Working-Class Power; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ; Western, Between Class and Market; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
43. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Western, Between Class and Market; Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
44. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Western, Between Class and Market; Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
45. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Western, Between Class and Market; Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
46. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Western, Between Class and Market; Freeman, On the Divergence in Unionism; Visser, Union Organization: Why Countries Differ.
47. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
48. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
49. Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering; Hancké, Trade Union Membership in Europe; Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter.
50. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering.
51. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering.
52. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering.
53. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter; Kjellberg, Facklig Organisering.
54. Lane Kenworthy, Wage-Setting Measures: A Survey and Assessment, World Politics 54, no. 1 (2001): 57-98. Data can be downloaded at http://www.emory.edu/SOC/lkenworthy.
55. Kenworthys indicator of coordination is time variant. To avoid exaggerating temporary shifts in the institutional environment and to retain the notion of institutional stickiness, I have used the predominant level of wage bargaining coordination between 1980-95.
56. Ebbinghaus and Visser, When Institutions Matter, 147.
57. Ibid. See also Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisering: 202; Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer: 26.
58. Ibid. See also Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisering: 202; Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer: 26.
59. Ibid. See also Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisering: 202; Kjellberg, Fackliga Organisationer: 26.
60. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
61. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
62. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
63. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
64. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
65. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
66. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
67. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
68. Barry T. Hirsch and Mark C. Berger, Union Membership Determination and Industry Characteristics, Southern Economic Journal 50, no. 1 (1983): 665-79; Greg J. Duncan and Frank P. Stafford, Do Union Members Receive Compensating Wage Differentials? American Economic Review 70, no. 2 (1980): 355-71; Alison Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership: A Study of Men and Women in Britain, Economica 53, no. 1 (1986): 41-61; Greg Hundley, Things Unions Do, Job Attributes, and Union Membership, Industrial Relations 28, no. 3 (1989): 335-55; Barry T. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization: An Analysis of Interarea Differences, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 147-61; Francis Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density: How Much of a Compositional Effect? British Journal of Industrial Relations 30, no. 3 (1991): 445-58; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Stephen Deery and Helen De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership in Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 29, no. 1 (1991): 59-73; Edward Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower Unionization Propensities than Natives? Industrial Relations 32, no. 2 (1993): 248-61.
69. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
70. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
71. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
72. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
73. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
74. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
75. George Sayers Bain and Farouk Elsheikh, Union Growth and the Business Cycle: An Econometric Analysis (Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1976); Neil Sheflin, Leo Troy, and Timothy C. Koeller, Structural Stability in Models of American Trade Union Growth, Quarterly Journal of Economics 95, no. 1 (1981): 77-88; Orley Aschenfelter and John Pencavel, American Trade Union Growth: 1900-1960, Quarterly Journal of Economics 83, no. 3 (1969): 434-48; Freeman and Pelletier, The Impact of Industrial Relations; Alan Carruth and Richard Disney, Where Have Two Million Trade Union Members Gone? Economica 55, no. 1 (1988): 1-19; Disney, Explanations of the Decline; Sabine Blaschke, Union Density and European Integration: Diverging Convergence, European Journal of Industrial Relations 6, no. 2 (2000): 217-36.
76. Western, Postwar Unionization; Western, Between Class and Market; Peter Lange and Lyle Scruggs, Where Have All the Members Gone? La sindacalizzazione nellera della globalizzazione, Stato e Mercato 55, no. 1 (1999): 39-75; Sven Oskarsson, Class Struggle in the Wake of Globalisation. Union Organisation and Economic Integration, in EuropeOne Labour Market? ed. Lars Magnusson and Jan Ottosson (Brussels: Pieter Lang, 2001), 193-238.
77. Western, Postwar Unionization; Western, Between Class and Market; Peter Lange and Lyle Scruggs, Where Have All the Members Gone? La sindacalizzazione nellera della globalizzazione, Stato e Mercato 55, no. 1 (1999): 39-75; Sven Oskarsson, Class Struggle in the Wake of Globalisation. Union Organisation and Economic Integration, in EuropeOne Labour Market? ed. Lars Magnusson and Jan Ottosson (Brussels: Pieter Lang, 2001), 193-238.
78. Western, Postwar Unionization; Western, Between Class and Market; Peter Lange and Lyle Scruggs, Where Have All the Members Gone? La sindacalizzazione nellera della globalizzazione, Stato e Mercato 55, no. 1 (1999): 39-75; Sven Oskarsson, Class Struggle in the Wake of Globalisation. Union Organisation and Economic Integration, in EuropeOne Labour Market? ed. Lars Magnusson and Jan Ottosson (Brussels: Pieter Lang, 2001), 193-238.
79. Western, Postwar Unionization; Western, Between Class and Market; Peter Lange and Lyle Scruggs, Where Have All the Members Gone? La sindacalizzazione nellera della globalizzazione, Stato e Mercato 55, no. 1 (1999): 39-75; Sven Oskarsson, Class Struggle in the Wake of Globalisation. Union Organisation and Economic Integration, in EuropeOne Labour Market? ed. Lars Magnusson and Jan Ottosson (Brussels: Pieter Lang, 2001), 193-238.
80. Western, Institutional Mechanisms for Unionization.
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84. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
85. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
86. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
87. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
88. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
89. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
90. Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Barry T. Hirsch and John T. Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions: New Approaches and Evidence (Boston: Allen and Unwin, 1986); Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Funkhouser, Do Immigrants Have Lower.
91. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
92. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
93. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
94. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
95. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
96. Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Stephen Deery and Janet Walsh, The Decline of Collectivism? A Comparative Study of White-Collar Employees in Britain and Australia, British Journal of Industrial Relations 37, no. 2 (1999): 245-69; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hundley, Things Unions Do.
97. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
98. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
99. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
100. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
101. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
102. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
103. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
104. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
105. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
106. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
107. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
108. Jack Fiorito and Charles R. Greer, Determinants of U.S. Unionism: Past Research and Future Needs, Industrial Relations 21, no. 1 (1982): 1-32; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Michael Allvin and Magnus Sverke, Do New Generations Imply the End of Solidarity? Swedish Unionism in the Era of Individualization, Economic and Industrial Democracy 21, no. 1 (2000): 71-95; Booth, Estimating the Probability of Trade Union Membership; Hirsch and Addison, The Economic Analysis of Unions; Greg Hundley, Education and Union Membership, British Journal of Industrial Relations 26, no. 2 (1988): 195-201; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization; John Payne, Trade Union Membership and Activism Among Young People in Great Britain, British Journal of Industrial Relations 27, no. 1 (1989): 111-32; Visser, Trends in Trade Union Membership; Deery and De Cieri, Determinants of Trade Union Membership; D. N. Ashton et al., A Note on the Trade Union Membership Patterns of Young Adults, British Journal of Industrial Relations 25, no. 2 (1987): 267-74; Diane M. Sinclair, The Importance of Sex for the Propensity to Unionize, British Journal of Industrial Relations 33, no. 2 (1995): 173-90.
109. Erik Olin Wright et al., Comparative Project on Class Structure and Class Consciousness: Core and Country-Specific Files. Produced by University of Wisconsin, Institute for Research on Poverty, 1990. Distributed by Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
110. Union density figures are from the same year as the survey year and are measured as union members minus the retired, students, and unemployed as a percentage of the dependent labor force, as reported by Golden, Lange, and Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining (Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States), and Ebbinghaus and Visser, The Societies of Europe (remaining countries). The union density figures for Germany (W) and Great Britain refer to Germany (East and West) and United Kingdom, respectively.
111. Union density figures are from the same year as the survey year and are measured as union members minus the retired, students, and unemployed as a percentage of the dependent labor force, as reported by Golden, Lange, and Wallerstein, Unions, Employers, Collective Bargaining (Australia, Canada, Japan, and the United States), and Ebbinghaus and Visser, The Societies of Europe (remaining countries). The union density figures for Germany (W) and Great Britain refer to Germany (East and West) and United Kingdom, respectively.
112. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
113. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
114. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
115. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
116. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
117. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
118. Joseph R. Antos, Mark Chandler, and Wesley Mellow, Sex Differences in Union Membership, Industrial and Labor Relations Review 33, no. 2 (1980): 162-69; Duncan and Stafford, Do Union Members Receive; Hirsch and Berger, Union Membership Determination; Green, Recent Trends in British Trade Union Density; Henry S. Farber, The Determination of the Union Status of Workers, Econometrica 51, no. 5 (1983): 1417-37; Hundley, Things Unions Do; Hirsch, The Determinants of Unionization.
119. For a similar approach, see Anders Westholm, On the Return of Epicycles: Some Crossroads in Spatial Modeling Revisited, Journal of Politics 63, no. 2 (2001): 454.
120. 2 and log-likelihood estimates as in Model 1.
121. 4) to capture all eight direct and twenty-four interaction effects from Model 2.
122. 3 = .94/1.04+.35-0.49
123. Western, Institutional Mechanisms for Unionization.
124. All results in this article were obtained using Stata 6 or MlwiN 1.1.