Defending a lost cause? France and the United States vision of imperial rule in French North Africa, 1945-1956

Diplomatic History

Volumn 26, Issue 2, 2002, Pages 215-247

  Thomas, Martin ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0042723897     PISSN: 01452096     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1111/1467-7709.00308     Document Type: Review

References (204)

1. Regarding the construction and discourse of Truman's governmental establishment, see Michael J. Hogan, A Cross of Iron: Harry S. Truman and the Origins of the National Security State, 1945-1954 (Cambridge, 1998), 1-22;
2. Melvyn P. Leffler, "The American Conception of National Security and the Beginnings of the Cold War, 1945-1948," American Historical Review 89 (1984): 346-81;
3. Howard Jones and Randall B. Woods, "Origins of the Cold War in Europe and the Near East: Recent Historiography and the National Security Imperative," Diplomatic History 17 (1993): 251-76.
4. Yahia Zoubir, "The United States, the Soviet Union and Decolonization of the Maghreb, 1945-62," Middle Eastern Studies 31 (1995): 58-84;
5. Irwin M. Wall, The United States and the Making of Postwar France, 1945-1954 (Cambridge, 1991), chs. 5-7.
6. Georges-Henri Soutou, "France," in The Origins of the Cold War in Europe: International Perspectives, ed. David Reynolds (Yale, 1994), 96-104.
7. Irwin M. Wall, French Communism in the Era of Stalin (Westport, 1983), ch. 3.
8. Robert Bourgi, Le Général de Gaulle et l'Afrique noire 1940-1969 (Paris, 1980), 142-43.
9. Secretary of State to Paris embassy, to June 1947, Foreign Relations of the United States, 1947 (Washington, 1971), vol. V:687-88 (hereafter FRUS with year and volume number);
10. also cited in Egya N. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups and Decolonization: American Businessmen and Organized Labour in French North Africa, 1948-56," Maghreb Review 13 (1988): 161-62.
11. Official estimates listed between 80-90,000 Malagasy deaths during the French pacification in Madagascar prior to December 1948; FO report on Madagascar rebellion, 26 Jan. 1949, J908/1019/69, FO 371/73721, Public Record Office, London (hereafter PRO).
12. Benjamin Rivlin, "The United States and Moroccan International Status, 1943-1956: A Contributory Factor in Morocco's Reassertion of Independence from France," International Journal of African Historical Studies 15 (1982): 64-69.
13. Detailed treatments include Stéphane Bernard, The Franco-Moroccan Conflict, 1943-1956(New Haven, 1968);
14. Emmanuel Sivan, Communisme et nationalisme en Algérie, 1920-1962 (Paris, 1976);
15. Tony-Smith, The French Stake in Algeria, 1945-1962 (Ithaca, 1978);
16. and André N'ouschi, L'Algérie Amère 1914-1994 (Paris, 1995).
17. Tait (Algiers) to State Dept., 17 Feb. 1950, Department of State records RG 59, Decimal files, 751S.00, Box 3700, RG 59, U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, College Park, MD (hereafter USNA).
18. Office of Far Eastern Affairs memo, "United States Policy in the Far East and Asia," 25 Oct. 1949, RG 59, 890.00/SEA area files, Box 7174, USNA;
19. Marc Michel, "De Lattre et les débuts de l'amé ricanisation de la guerre d'Indochine," Revue Française d'Histoire d'Outre-Mer 72 (1985): 321-34.
20. See Arthur Layton Funk, The Politics of Torch: The Allied Landings and the Algiers Putsch, 1942 (Lawrence, KA, 1974);
21. Elmar Krautkramer, Vichy-Alger 1940-1942: Le chemin de la France au tournant de la guerre (Paris, 1992);
22. G. E. Maguire, Anglo-American Policy towards the Free French (London, 1995);
23. Raoul Aglion, Roosevelt and de Gaulle: Allies in Conflict: A Personal Memoir (New York, 1988);
24. and Martin Thomas, The French Empire at War, 1940-45 (Manchester, 1998).
25. Robert Murphy, Diplomat among Warriors (New York, 1964), ch. 1;
26. Scott L. Bills, Empire and Cold War. The Roots of U.S.-Third World Antagonism, 1945-47 (London, 1990), 28;
27. OSS Algiers report, "Informal observations on French psychology in North Africa," 14 June 1943, Box 5, folder 73; Office of Strategic Services records, RG 226 Algiers files, USNA.
28. Bonnet (Washington) to Bidault, I June 1945, no. 3847, Série Afrique-Levant, Sous-série Algérie 1944-1952, vol. 2, Ministère des Affaires Etrangères, Paris (French Foreign Ministry archive, hereafter MAE).
29. Bidault to Tixier/Cabinet, 8 June 1945, no. 397, Algérie vol. 2, MAE;Jean-Charles Jauffret ed., La Guerre d'Algérie par les documents, I: L'Avertissement, 1943-1946 (Paris, 1990), no. 768/S, Sétif Commandant, "Rapport sur le mouvement insurrectionnel du 8 mai 1945," 18 June 1945.
30. Chataigneau to Affaires étrangères, 24 Oct. 1945, no. 2117/CDP, Algérie vol. 2, MAE.
31. Henderson memo, submitted to Acheson, 28 Dec. 1945, FRUS, 1946 VII:1-6; Bruce J. Evenson, "A Story of 'Ineptness': The Truman Administration's Struggle to Shape Conventional Wisdom on Palestine at the Beginning of the Cold War," Diplomatic History 15 (1991): 342;
32. David S. McLellan, Dean Acheson: The State Department Years (New York, 1976), 392-93;
33. John Lewis Gaddis, We Now Know: Rethinking Cold War History (Oxford, 1997), 156-57.
34. Bills, Empire and Cold War, 160-63;
35. Acting Secretary to Pasquet (Rabat), 11 July 1946; Caffery to State, 26 July 1946, FRUS, 1946 VII:51-55.
36. Caffery to State, 26 July 1946;
37. Pasquet (Rabat) to State, 7 Aug. 1946;
38. Caffery to State, 4 Oct. 1946, FRUS, 1946 VII:56-61;
39. Neil MacMaster, Colonial Migrants and Racism: Algerians in France, 1900-62 (London, 1997), 217.
40. Regarding PCF activity in 1946, see Wall, French Communism, 39-46;
41. Edward Rice-Maximin, "The United States and the French Left, 1945-1949: The View from the State Department," Journal of Contemporary History 19 (1984): 729-47.
42. Acting Secretary of State to Pasquet (Rabat), 11 July 1946;
43. Finley (Algiers) to Secretary of State, 17 August 1946, FRUS, 1946 VIII:51-53, 58.
44. Tony Smith, "The French Colonial Consensus and People's War, 1946-58," Journal of Contemporary History 9 (1974): 217-47,
45. and The French Stake in Algeria, 1945-1962 (Ithaca, 1978);
46. James I. Lewis, "The MRP and the Genesis of the French Union, 1944-1948," French History 12 (1998): 276-314.
47. Heike Bungert, "A New Perspective on French-American Relations during the Occupation of Germany, 1945-1948: Behind-the-Scenes Diplomatic Bargaining and the Zonal Merger," Diplomatic History 18 (1994): 333-52;
48. Marc Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace: The Making of the European Settlement 1945-1963 (Princeton, 1999), 70-73.
49. For a succinct discussion of the statute, see James I. Lewis, "French Politics and the Algerian Statute of 1947," Maghreb Review 17 (1992): 146-71.
50. Recommendations in Report of North African Conference in Paris, enclosure to Caffery dispatch, 20 June 1947, FRUS, 1947 V:686-98 passim.
51. Wall, United States, 131.
52. Peter L. Hahn, "Discord or Partnership? British and American Policy toward Egypt, 1942-56," in Demise of the British Empire in the Middle East,eds. Michael J. Cohen and Martin Kolinsky (London, 1998), 166-67.
53. Juin to Bidault, 15 Sept. 1947, vol. 115, Georges Bidault papers, Archives Nationales, Paris (hereafter AN); Rabat consulate to NEA, 25 Jan. 1951, 14 Feb. 1951, 771.00, Box 3990, RG 59, USNA.
54. Pasquet (Rahat) to State, 7 May 1947, FRUS, 1947 V:680-1. Pasquet was referring to the Doukkala tribe historically based around Casablanca. The Moroccan Communist Party was eventually outlawed by decree in December 1952.
55. Zoubir, "The United States, the Soviet Union and Decolonization," 59-60.
56. Report of Committee on Colonial Problems, II Feb. 1948, Lot file 250/0/12/01, Colonialism: Box 8, Policy Planning Staff records, 1947-53, RG 59, USNA.
57. PPS 25, Trench North Africa," 22 March 1948, FRUS, 1948 III:682-89.
58. R. B. Knight (Paris) letter to Elim O'Shaughnessy (WEA) 11 Jan. 1949, 751.00, Box 4002, RG 59, USNA;
59. Scott Lucas, "The Limits of Ideology: U.S. Foreign Policy and Arab Nationalism in the Early Cold War," in The United States and Decolonization: Power and Freedom, eds. David Ryan and Victor Pungong (London, 2000), 140-42.
60. Memo by Deputy Director of NEA, 14 Jan. 1947, FRUS, 1947 V:671-73;
61. El Mustafa Azzou, "Le nationalisme marocain et les Etats-Unis 1945-1956," Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains 177 (1994): 132-33.
62. Alexandre Parodi (New York) to Direction des Affaires politiques, 9 July 1947, tel. 1065, Série Nations Unies et Organisations Internationales (NUOI) vol. 573, MAE.
63. Kenneth J. Perkins, "North African Propaganda and the United States, 1946-1956," African Studies Review 19 (1976): 66-67.
64. See reports on French North Africa and the U.N. in NUOI vol. 573, MAE.
65. Caffery to State, 23 Sept. 1947, FRUS, 1947 V:710-16.
66. Conference secretariat instructions to Juin (Rabat), 13 Dec. 1947, no. 1938/SC; Robert Lacoste (Rabat) to Robert Schuman, 29 July 1948, no. 1047; Tunis civil affairs memo, 16 Sept. 1948, no. 1420, NUOI vol.573, MAE.
67. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups," 163-64.
68. There are parallels with the cultural imperialism of "Coca- colonization" in France, discussed by Wall in The United States, 113-26.
69. The importance of U.S. commercial penetration of Morocco's economy lends weight to Robert Buzzanco's recent contention that the Marxist imperative of economic materialism is fundamental to U.S. foreign relations. See his "What Happened to the New Left? Toward a Radical Reading of American Foreign Relations," Diplomatic History 23 (1999): 598.
70. William Burr, "Marshall Planners and the Politics of Empire: The United States and French Financial Policy, 1948," Diplomatic History 15 (1991): 495-522.
71. A. Lacroix-Riz, Les Protectorats d'Afrique du Nord entre la France et Washington du débarquement à l'indépendance: Maroc et Tunisie 1942-1956 (Paris, 1988), 51-6.
72. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups," 162.
73. El Mustafa Azzou, "Les hommes d'affaires américains au Maroc avant 1956," Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains 180 (1995): 137-41;
74. Samya El Machat, Les Etats-Unis et le Maroc: Le choix stratégique 1945-1959 (Paris, 1996), 18-22.
75. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups," 164-5.
76. On ECA economic influence in France, see Burr, note 42; for the "Empire by invitation" thesis, see Geir Lundestad, America, Scandinavia, and the Cold War, 1945-1959 (New York, 1980),
77. and "Empire by Invitation," SHAFR Newsletter 15 (1984): 1-21.
78. Earl D. Sohm memo, "Obtaining agreed Departmental position on strategy on Moroccan problem," 2 March 1951, 771.00, Box 3900, RG 59, USNA.
79. El Mustafa Azzou, "Les hommes d'affaires américains," 141-42.
80. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups," 165-67.
81. Paul J. Zingg, "The Cold War in North Africa: American Foreign Policy and Postwar Muslim Nationalism 1945-1962," The Historian 39 (1976): 41-2. The air bases were at Sidi Slimane, Nouasscur, Benjirir and Boulhaut.
82. Robert Frank, "The French Alternative: Economic Power through the Empire or through Europe?" in Poorer in Europe? If: Great Britain, France, Germany, and Italy and the Origins of the EEC, 1952-1957, ed. Ennio di Nolfo (Berlin, 1992), 165-66.
83. Claude d'Abzac-Epezy and Philippe Vial, "In Search of a European Consciousness: French Military Elites and the Idea of Europe, 1947-54," in Building Postwar Europe:National Decision-Makers and European Institutions, 1948-63, ed. Anne Deighton (London, 1995), 4-12.
84. Lacroix-Riz, Les Protectorats d'Afrique du Nord, 68-72.
85. WEA memo, "Review of United States' Policy toward French Colonial Areas," 15 Feb. 1950, French Desk Records, 1941-51, Lot file 53D246, Box 1, RG 59, USNA.
86. Bureau of African Affairs statement of U.S. Policy toward Morocco, 21 Sept. 1951, Lot files Africa, Office of North African Affairs, Box 4, file 20, RG 59, USNA.
87. John Dorman (Rabat) to State Dept., 25 Oct. 1951, 771.00, Box 3991;
88. Rabat consulate to State, 24 March 1950, 771.00, Box 3989, RG 59, USNA;
89. Rebai speech to Jeunesse destourienne, 19 March 1950, Tunisie vol. 300, MAE.
90. DRG, Section AFN note, 30 Aug. 1951, Tunisie vol. 300, MAE.
91. Bureau of African Affairs statement of U.S. Policy toward Morocco, 21 Sept. 1951, Lot files Africa, Office of North African Affairs, Box 4, file 20, RG 59, USNA;
92. Vincent Auriol, Journal du Septennat 1947-1954:tome VI 1952, ed. Dominique Boche (Paris, 1978), 584;
93. Egya N. Sangmuah, "Sultan Mohammed ben Youssef's American Strategy and the Diplomacy of North African Liberation, 1943-61," Journal of Contemporary History 27 (1992): 155-57.
94. Parodi to Algiers Governor, 24 May 1951, Algérie vol. 4, MAE.
95. Direction d'Afrique-Levant note, 2 Jan. 1952, Tunisie vol. 340, MAE.
96. Bonnet (Washington) to Robert Schuman, 7 March 1952, no. 1197;
97. Bonnet to Schuman, 7 April 1952, no. 1755, Etats-Unis vol. 546, MAE;
98. Ingrid Geay, "Les débats sur les recours de la Tunisie à l'ONU de 1952 à 1954," Revue d'Histoire Diplomatique no (1996): 245-51;
99. Samya El Machat, Les Etats-Unis et la Tunisie: De l'ambiguïté à l'entente 1945-1959 (Paris, 1996), 36-41;
100. Jean-Pierre Rioux, The Fourth Republic, 1944-1958(Cambridge, 1987), 212-15. Regarding French intelligence agency sponsorship of later Main Rouge violence,
101. see Roger Faligot and Pascal Krop, La piscine: Les services secrets français 1944-1984 (Paris, 1985), ch. 8.
102. El Machat, Les Etats-Unis, 201;
103. Ted Morgan, A Covert Life: Jay Lovestone: Communist, AntiCommunist, and Spymaster (New York, 1999), 177-89, 289-95.
104. Thomas J. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation: The United States and White Rule in Africa, 1948-1968(Columbia, MO, 1985), 42.
105. Regarding ILO standards, see Frederick Cooper, Decolonization and African Society: The Labor Question in French and British Africa (Cambridge, 1996), 362-69.
106. Martin Thomas, "France Accused: French North Africa before the United Nations, 1952-1962," Contemporary European History 10 (2001): 98-103.
107. Sangmuah, "Interest Groups," 168-71.
108. John Carter Vincent (Tangier) to State Dept., 21 May 1952, 771.00, Box 5991, RG 59, USNA;
109. Auriol, Journal du Septennat 1047-1951: tome VI 1952, 808-20;
110. Morgan, A Covert Life, 291. The Union Générale des Syndicats Confédérés du Maroc (UGSCM) was originally linked to its French equivalent, the Confédération Géné rale du Travail (CGT).
111. Bonnet to Schuman, 25 April 1952, no. 2040, Etats-Unis vol. 546, MAE.
112. Bonnet to Schuman, II April 1952, no. 1810; Bonnet to Schuman, 18 April 1952, no. 1924, Etats-Unis vol. 346, MAE.
113. Henri Bonnet note, "Problèmes politiques de l'Afrique française sur la scène international - attitude des Etats-Unis," 25 April 1952, vol. 113, Bidault papers, AN.
114. Memcon, "Forthcoming talk with M. Schuman about North Africa," 15 May 1952, 751S.00, Box 3700, RG 59, USNA.
115. Memcon, "North Africa," 29 Oct. 1952, 7518.022, Box 3700, RG 59, UNP memo To NEA, 29 Aug. 1952, Lot files Africa, file 58D48, box 24/file 40.1, RG 59, USNA.
116. Perkins, "North African Propaganda," 67. Ben Aboud became Morocco's first ambassador to the United States.
117. According to Lovestone's biographer, his associate, Louise Page Morris, worked on Ladgham's behalf in New York, even paying his dental bills. Morgan, A Co-cert Life, 290.
118. Perkins, "North African Propaganda," 68-75.
119. Vincent (Tangier) report, 21 May 1952, 771.00, Box 3991, RG 59, USNA.
120. Thomas G. Paterson, "Presidential Foreign Policy, Public Opinion and Congress: The Truman Years," Diplomatic History 3 (1979): 6-7.
121. Evenson, "A Story of 'Ineptness,'" 339-59.
122. El Mustafa Azzou, "Le nationalisme marocain," 134-35.
123. Bonnet to Schuman, 8 August 1952, no. 3611, Etats-Unis vol. 347, MAE.
124. Wall, The United States, ch. 7.
125. Richard A. Melanson, "The Foundations of Eisenhower's Foreign Policy: Continuity, Community, and Consensus," in Reevaluating Eisenbower American Foreign Policy in the Fifties, ed. Richard A. Melanson and David Mayers (Urbana, IL, 1987), 49-55;
126. Hogan, A Cross of Iron, 390-91, 414-16. On MC 48,
127. see Trachtenberg, A Constructed Peace, 158-61;
128. Lucas, "The Limits of Ideology," 147.
129. Peter L. Hahn, The United States, Great Britain and Egypt, 1945-1956: Strategy and Diplomacy in the Early Cold War (Chapel Hill, NC, 1991), 155-79;
130. Scott Lucas and Alistair Morey, "The Hidden 'Alliance': The CIA and MI6 Before and After Suez," Intelligence and National Security 15 (2000): 95-100. By March 1953 CIA operatives were holding weekly meetings with Nasser.
131. David Gibbs, "Political Parties and International Relations: The United States and the Decolonization of Sub-Saharan Africa," International History Review 17 (1995): 313-14.
132. William Stivers, "Kisenhower and the Middle East," in Reevaluating Eisenbower, ed. Melanson and Mayers, 193, 204;
133. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation, 34-37.
134. Hogan, A Cross of Iron, 397-99.
135. Matthew Connelly, "Taking Off the Cold War Lens: Visions of North-South Conflict during the Algerian War for Independence," American Historical Review (2000): 739-69.
136. Matthew Connelly American Historical Review Ibid, 753, 758.
137. Noer, Cold War and Black Liberation, 2.
138. Gibbs, "Political Parties and International Relations," 314.
139. Bonnet to Schuman, 2 Jan. 1953, no. 28, Etats-Unis vol. 341, MAE. Yves Chataigneau was Secretary-General in Léon Blum's prime ministerial cabinet under the Popular Front of 1936-37. He was appointed ambassador to Moscow on 21 April 1948.
140. Raymond Poidevin, "René Mayer et la politique extérieure de la France (1943-1955)," Revue d'Histoire de la Deuxième Guerre Mondiale 134 (1984): 88.
141. Bonnet to Bidault, 5 March 1953, no. 1613, Etats-Unis vol. 341, MAE.
142. Frederick W. Marks III, Power and Peace: The Diplomacy of John Foster Dulles (Westport, 1993), 160.
143. Richard H. Immerman, John Foster Dulles: Piety, Pragmatism, and Power in U.S. Foreign Policy (Wilmington, 1999), 59-60;
144. Immerman, "Between the Unattainable and the Unacceptable: Eisenhower and Dien Bien Phu," in Reevaluating Eisenhower, ed. Melanson and Mayers, 121-30.
145. Cited in David W. Lesch, Syria and the United States: Eisenbower's Cold War in the Middle East (Boulder, 1991), 29.
146. Syria and the United States: Eisenbower's Cold War in the Middle East Ibid, 33.
147. John Dorman (Rabat) to State, 17 Aug. 1953;
148. W. K. Scott to General Smith, 18 Aug. 1953, 771.00, Box 3995;
149. W.J. Porter (Rabat) to State, 12 Jan. 1954, 771.00, Box 3996, RG 59, AF memo, "U.S. Position on Tunisian Reform Program," 31 Aug. 1954, Lot file 58D48, box 24/file 40.1, RG 59, USNA.
150. NEA paper, "Moroccan Reform Program," n.d., Lot file 58D48, box 20/file 68.1, RG 59;
151. Sangmuah, "Sultan Mohammed ben Youssef's American Strategy," 139-42.
152. Wall, The United States, 235, 252-55.
153. On France, the U.S., and EDC, see William I. Hitchcock, France Restored: Cold War Diplomacy and the Quest for Leadership in Europe, 1944-1954 (Chapel Hill, 1998), chs.5 and 6;
154. McBride memcon., 19 Oct. 1954, Lot file 58D48, box 21/file 90, AF memo, "US. Position on Tunisian Reform Program," 31 Aug. 1954, Lot file 58D48, box 24/file 40.1, RG 59, USNA.
155. Pierre Mendès France, Oeuvres Complètes: III: Gouverner, c'est choisir (Paris, 1986), deuxième partie;
156. Wall, The United States, 256-61.
157. Livingston Merchant to Dulles, 21 Sept. 1955, Lot files Africa, Office of Northern African Affairs, Country file: Morocco, box 4/file 20, USNA.
158. Clark to J. W. Jones (WEA), 22 April 1955, 751S.00, Box 3375, RG 59, USNA.
159. Special Assistant to the Secretary, intelligence note, 6 June 1955, 751S.00, Box 3375, RG 59, USNA;
160. article by William McGaffin, Chicago Daily News, 5 January 1955.
161. Documents Diplomatiques Français, 1955 II (hereafter DDF), (Paris, 1987), no. 99, Couve de Murville to Pinay, 9 Aug. 1955. Dulles later conceded to France's UN representative Hervé Alphand, that this stronger anticolonialist line went too far too fast in North Africa;
162. see Marks, Power and Peace, 73.
163. Dillon to State Dept., 5 June 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 18:95-97;
164. Dillon to Dulles, 15 June 1955;
165. Merchant to Dulles, 2 July 1955, 751S.00, Box 3375, RG 59, USNA.
166. As examples, see Julius Holmes to State, 29 July 1955, 7518.00, Box 3375, RG 59, USNA;
167. Holmes memo to Dulles, 29 Sept. 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 18:105-12.
168. Dillon to Dulles, 15 June 1955;
169. Clark to State, 24 June 1955;
170. Clark report on the CRUA/FLN, 13 July 1955, 751S.00, Box 3375, RG 59, USNA.
171. Paris embassy to State, 5 June 1955, FRUS, 1955-1957 18:95-97.
172. French embassy meetings on North Africa, 1-3 August 1955, minutes of 1st meeting, 1 Aug. 1955, 751S.00, Box 3376, RG 59, USNA.
173. DDF, 1955 II, no. 112, Couve de Murville to René
174. Massigli, 16 Aug. 1955; no. 131, note I;
175. Thomas, "France Accused," 103-9.
176. Couve to Foreign Ministry, 7 Dec. 1955, no. 6699, Etats-Unis vol. 342, MAE;
177. Caroline Pruden, Conditional Partners: Eisenhower, the United Nations and the Search for a Permanent Peace (Baton Rouge, 1998), 181.
178. Matthew Connelly discusses FLN lobbying in "Rethinking the Cold War and Decolonization: The Grand Strategy of the Algerian War of Independence," International Journal of Middle East Studies 33 (2001): 221-45.
179. Couve de Murville to Foreign Ministry, II Oct. 1955, no. 5692;
180. Service de Presse annex 8 to Foreign Ministry report, 29 Feb. 1956, Etats-Unis vol. 342, MAE.
181. David E. Gardiner notes that the New York Times, which covered Africa more than any other U.S. newspaper, generally backed French policy in Algeria.
182. See his "France's African Policy (1956-1960), as Seen in the American Press," in L'Afrique noire française: l'heure des Indépendances, ed. Charles-Robert Ageron and Marc Michel (Paris, 1992), 523-33.
183. Couve de Murville memo, 15 Oct. 1955, no. 5811, Etats-Unis vol. 342, MAE.
184. NEA memcon, 17 Jan. 1956, 751S.00, Box 3376, RG 59, USNA.
185. Dillon to Dulles, 4 Feb. 1956; Dulles to Paris, Cairo and Tripoli Embassies, 7 Feb. 1956, 751S.00, Box 3376, RG 59, USNA.
186. Philippe Bourdrel, La dernière chance de del'Algérie française: Du gouvernement socialiste au retour de de Gaulle, 1956-1958 (Paris, 1996), 21-30;
187. Bernard Ullmann, Jacques Soastelle: Le mal aimé (Paris, 1995), 222-4.
188. Ronald W. Pruessen, "John Foster Dulles and the Predicaments of Power," in John Foster Dulles and the Diplomacy of the Cold War, ed. Richard H. Immerman (Princeton, 1990), 39.
189. Dillon to Dulles, 21 Feb. 1956, 751S.00, Box 3376, RG 59, USNA. Regarding FLN techniques of control,
190. see Martha Crenshaw Hutchinson, Revolutionary Terrorism: The FLN in Algeria, 1954-1962 (Stanford, 1978), 7-14.
191. WEA memcon, 29 March 1956, 1956, 751S.00, Box 3377, RG 59, USNA.
192. Charles Lucet (Washington) to Foreign Ministry, II Dec. 1956, no. 7956, Etats-Unis vol. 342, MAE. Documents being transported by the detained FLN leaders were held to implicate Caltex, Standard Oil of California, and the Texas Oil Company in providing funds to the FLN. This was vehemently denied.
193. Avi Shlaim, "The Protocol of Sèvres, 1956: Anatomy of a War Plot," International Affairs 73, no. 3 (1997): 509-29
194. Diane B. Kunz, The Economic Diplomacy of the Suez Crisis (Chapel Hill, 1991), 112-13, 192-3.
195. Cited in Wm. Roger Louis, "Dulles, Suez and the British," in John Foster Dalles, ed. Immerman, 157,
196. and in Marks, Power and Peace, 161.
197. Frank, "The French Alternative," 166.
198. Hervé Alphand to Pineau, 3 Jan. and 17 Jan. 1957, tels.24/412;
199. De Lagarde to Alphand, 26 Jan. 1957, Etats-Unis vol. 343, MAE.
200. See notes 2, 6, 8, 34, 45.
201. Franks to Ernest Bevin, 14 Jan. 1950, Z223/5/50, CO 537/7136, PRO.
202. Yahia H. Zoubir, "U.S. and Soviet Policies towards France's Struggle with Anticolonial Nationalism in North Africa," Canadian Journal of History 30 (1995): 439-66, 465.
203. Yahia H. Zoubir Canadian Journal of History ibid, 441-44.
204. Pierre Mélandri, "La France et le 'jeu double' des Etats-Unis," in La Guerre d'Algérie et les Français, ed. Jean-Pierre Rioux (Paris, 1990), 433.