The role of the oceans in climate

International Journal of Climatology

Volumn 23, Issue 10, 2003, Pages 1127-1159

  Bigg, G R ^a   Jickells, T D ^a   Liss, P S ^a   Osborn, T J ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF EAST ANGLIA   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Aerosols; Air sea exchange; Carbon cycle; Climate system; Decadal variability; Sulfur cycle; Thermohaline circulation; Tropical climate

Indexed keywords

CARBON DIOXIDE; EARTH ATMOSPHERE; GEOCHEMISTRY; GLOBAL WARMING; OCEAN CURRENTS; OCEANOGRAPHY;

BIOGEOCHEMICAL INTERACTIONS;

CLIMATOLOGY;

AIR-SEA INTERACTION; ATMOSPHERE-OCEAN SYSTEM; GLOBAL CLIMATE; THERMOHALINE CIRCULATION;

EID: 0041924703     PISSN: 08998418     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/joc.926     Document Type: Article

References (182)

1. Andreae MO, Crutzen PJ. 1997. Atmospheric aerosols: biogeochemical sources and their role in atmospheric chemistry. Science 276: 1052-1058.
2. Andreae MO, Elbert W, Cai Y, Andreae TW, Gras J. 1999. Non-seasalt sulfate, methanesulfonate and nitrate aerosol concentrations and size distributions at Cape Grim Tasmania. Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 21 695-21 706.
3. Asher WL, Wanninkhof R. 1998. The effect of bubble-mediated gas transfer on purposeful dual-gaseous tracer experiments. Journal of Geophysical Research 103: 10 555-10 560.
4. Ayers GP, Ivey JP, Gillett RW. 1991. Coherence between seasonal cycles of dimethyl sulphide. methanesulphanate and sulphate in marine air. Nature 349: 404-406.
5. Baker AR, Turner SM, Broadgate WJ, Thompson A, McFiggans GB, Vesperinin O, Nightingale PD, Liss PS, Jickells TD. 2000. Distribution and sea-air flux of biogenic trace gases in the eastern Atlantic Ocean. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 14: 871-886.
6. Bates TS, Kelly KC, Johnson JE, Gammon RH. 1996. A reevaluation of the open ocean source of methane to the atmosphere. Journal of Geophysical Research 101: 6953-6961.
7. Battisti DS, Hirst AC. 1989. Interannual variability in the tropical atmosphere/ocean system: influence of basin state, ocean geometry and non-linearity. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 46: 1687-1712.
8. Bauch HA, Erlenkeuser H, Spielhagen RF, Struck U, Matthiessen J, Thiede J, Heinemeier J. 2001. A multiproxy reconstruction of the evolution of deep and surface waters in the subarctic Nordic seas over the last 30 000 years. Quaternary Science Reviews 20: 659-678.
9. Behera SK, Krishnan R, Yamagata T. 1999. Unusual ocean-atmosphere conditions in the tropical Indian Ocean during 1994. Geophysical Research Letters 26: 3001-3004.
10. Berman-Frank I, Cullen JT, Shaked Y, Sherrell RM, Falkowski PG. 2001. Iron availability, cellular iron quotas and nitrogen fixation in Trichodesmium. Limnology and Oceanography 45: 1249-1260.
11. Bi DH, Budd WF, Hirst AC, Wu XR. 2001. Collapse and re-organisation of the Southern Ocean overturning under global warming in a coupled model. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 3927-3930.
12. Bigg GR. 1996. The Oceans and Climate. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
13. Bigg GR, Wadley MR. 2001. Millennial changes in the oceans: an ocean modeller's viewpoint. Journal of Quaternary Science 16: 309-319.
14. Bigg GR, Wadley MR, Stevens DP, Johnson JA. 1998. Simulations of two last glacial maximum ocean states. Paleoceanography 13: 340-351.
15. Boers R, Ayers GP, Gras GC. 1994. Coherence between seasonal variation in satellite-derived cloud optical depth and boundary layer CCN at a mid-latitude Southern Hemisphere station. Tellus B 46: 123-131.
16. Boyd PW, Watson AJ, Law CS, Abraham ER, Trull T, Murdoch R, et al. 2000. A mesoscale phytoplankton bloom in the polar Southern Ocean stimulated by iron fertilisation. Nature 407: 695-723.
17. Broadgate WJ, Liss PS, Penkett SA. 1997. Seasonal emissions of isoprene and other reactive hydrocarbons from the ocean. Geophysical Research Letters 24: 2675-2678.
18. Camberlin P, Janicot S, Poccard I. 2001. Seasonality and atmospheric dynamics of the teleconnection between African rainfall and tropical sea-surface temperature: Atlantic vs. ENSO. International Journal of Climatology 21: 973-1005.
19. Carpenter LJ, Sturges WT, Penkett SA, Liss PS, Alicke B, Hebestreit K, Platt U. 1999. Short-lived alkyl iodides and bromides at Mace Head Ireland: links to biogenic sources and halogen oxide production. Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 1679-1689.
20. Carton JA, Cao XH, Giese BS, daSilva AM. 1996. Decadal and interannual SST variability in the tropical Atlantic Ocean. Journal of Physical Oceanography 26: 1165-1175.
21. Cayan DR. 1992. Latent and sensible heat-flux anomalies over the northern oceans - the connection to monthly atmospheric circulation Journal of Climate 5: 354-369.
22. Chang P, Ji L, Li H. 1997. A decadal climate variation in the tropical Atlantic Ocean from thermodynamic air-sea interactions. Nature 385: 516-518.
23. Chang P, Saravanan R, Ji L, Hegerl GC. 2000. The effect of local sea surface temperatures on atmospheric circulation over the tropical Atlantic sector. Journal of Climate 13: 2195-2216.
24. Charlson RJ, Lovelock JE, Andrea MO, Warren SG. 1987. Oceanic phytoplankton, atmospheric sulphur, cloud albedo and climate. Nature 326: 655-661.
25. Christoph M, Barnett TP, Roeckner E. 1998. The Antarctic Circumpolar Wave in a coupled ocean-atmosphere GCM. Journal of Climate 11: 1659-1672.
26. Church JA, Gregory JM, Huybrechts P, Kuhn M, Lambeck K, Nhuan MT, Qin D, Woodworth PL. 2001. Changes in sea level. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M. van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson CA (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge: 639-693.
27. Collins M, Tett SFB, Cooper C. 2001. The internal climate variability of HadCM3, a version of the Hadley Centre coupled model without flux adjustments. Climate Dynamics 17: 61-81.
28. Cubasch U, Meehl GA, Boer GJ, Stouffer RJ, Dix M, Noda A, Senior CA, Raper S, Yap KS. 2001. Projections of future climate change. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M. van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson CA (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge: 525-582.
29. Delworth TL, Manabe S, Stouffer RJ. 1993. Interdecadal variations of the thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Journal of Climate 6: 1993-2011.
30. Deser C, Blackmon ML. 1993. Surface climate variations over the North Atlantic Ocean during winter: 1900-1989. Journal of Climate 6: 1743-1753.
31. Diaz HF, Hoerling MP, Eischeid JK. 2001. ENSO variability, teleconnections and climate change. International Journal of Climatology 21: 1845-1862.
32. Dickson RR, Lazier J, Meincke J, Rhines P, Swift J. 1996. Long-term coordinated changes in the convective activity of the North Atlantic. Progress in Oceanography 38: 241-295.
33. Dixon KW, Delworth TL, Spelman MJ, Stouffer RJ. 1999. The influence of transient surface fluxes on North Atlantic overturning in a coupled GCM climate change experiment. Geophysical Research Letters 26: 2749-2752.
34. Driscoll NW, Haug GH. 1998. A short circuit in thermohaline circulation: a cause for Northern Hemisphere glaciation? Science 282: 436-438.
35. Egbert GD, Ray RD. 2000. Significant dissipation of tidal energy in the deep ocean inferred from satellite altimeter data. Nature 405: 775-778.
36. Enfield DB, Mestas-Nunez AM, Cid-Serrano L. 1999. How ubiquitous is the dipole relationship in the tropical Atlantic sea surface temperatures? Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 7841-7848.
37. Fagel N, Robert C, Preda M, Thorez J. 2001. Smectite composition as a tracer of deep circulation: the case of the northern North Atlantic. Marine Geology 172: 309-330.
38. Falkowski PG, Barber RT, Smetacek V. 1998. Biogeochemical controls and feedbacks on ocean primary production. Science 281: 200-206.
39. 2 survey. Oceanography 14: 18-32.
40. Galloway JN, Cowling EB. 2002. Reactive nitrogen and the world: 200 years of change, Ambio 31: 64-71.
41. Ganopolski A, Rahmstorf S. 2001. Rapid changes of glacial climate simulated in a coupled climate model. Nature 409: 153-158.
42. Gascard JC, Watson AJ, Messias MJ, Olsson KA, Johannessen T, Simonson K. 2002. Long-lived vortices as a mode of deep ventilation in the Greenland Sea. Nature 416: 525-527.
43. Gent PR. 2001. Will the North Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation weaken during the 21st century? Geophysical Research Letters 28: 1023-1026.
44. Gent PR, Large WG, Bryan FO. 2001. What sets the mean transport through Drake Passage? Journal of Geophysical Research 106: 2693-2712.
45. Gladstone Rm Bigg GR, Nicholls KW. 2001. Icebergs and fresh water fluxes in the Southern Ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 106: 19 903-19 915.
46. Goddard L, Mason SJ, Zebiak SE, Ropelewski CF, Basher R, Cane MA. 2001. Current approaches to seasonal-to-interannual climate predictions. International Journal of Climatology 21: 1111-1152.
47. Goosse H, Deleersnijder E, Fichefet T, England MH. 1999. Sensitivity of a global coupled ocean-sea ice model to the parameterization of vertical mixing. Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 13 681-13 695.
48. Gornitz V, Fung I. 1994. Potential distribution of methane hydrates in the world oceans. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 8: 335-347.
49. Gregory JM, Church JA, Boer GJ, Dixon KW, Flato GM, Jackett DR, Lowe JA, O'Farrell SP, Roeckner E, Russell GL, Stouffer RJ, Winter M. 2001. Comparison of results from several AOGCMs for global and regional sea-level change 1900-2100. Climate Dynamics 18: 225-240.
50. Grotzner A, Latif M, Barnett TP. 1998. A decadal climate cycle in the North Atlantic Ocean as simulated by the ECHO coupled GCM. Journal of Climate 11: 831-847.
51. Handoh IC, Bigg GR. 2000. A self-sustaining climate mode in the tropical Atlantic, 1995-1997: observations and modelling. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 126: 807-821.
52. Handoh IC, Matthews AJ, Bigg GR, Stevens DP. Submitted for publication. Dominant coupled ocean-atmosphere interannual modes in the tropical Atlantic: part I, the northern tropical Atlantic mode. Journal of Climate.
53. Hasselmann K. 1976. Stochastic climate models, I: theory. Tellus 28: 473-485.
54. Hewitt CD, Broccoli AJ, Mitchell JF, Stouffer RJ. 2001. A coupled model study of the last glacial maximum: was part of the North Atlantic relatively warm? Geophysical Research Letters 28: 1571-1574.
55. Hill AE, Mitchelson-Jacob EG. 1993. Observations of a poleward-flowing saline core on the continental slope west of Scotland. Deep-Sea Research Part I: Oceanographic Research Papers 40: 1521-1527.
56. Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson CA (eds). 2001. Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Cambridge University Press: Cambridge.
57. Huybrechts P, De Wolde J. 1999. The dynamic response of the Greenland and Antarctic ice sheets to multiple-century climatic warming. Journal of Climate 12: 2169-2188.
58. Jacobson MC, Hansson HC, Noone KJ, Charlson RJ. 2000. Organic atmospheric aerosols: review and state of the science. Reviews of Geophysics 38: 267-294.
59. Jickells T. 1998. Nutrient biogeochemistry of the coastal zone. Science 281: 217-222.
60. Jickells T. 2002. Emissions from the oceans to the atmosphere, deposition from the atmosphere to the oceans and the interactions between them. In Challenges of a Changing Earth, Proceedings of the Global Change Open Science Conference, The Netherlands, 10-13 July 2001. Steffen W, Jager J, Carson D, Bradshaw C (eds). Springer-Verlag: Berlin: 92-96.
61. Jickells TD, Spokes LJ. 2001. Atmospheric iron inputs to the oceans. In The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater, Turner DR, Hunter KA (eds). Wiley: Chichester: 85-121.
62. Johnson RG. 1997. Ice age initiation by an ocean-atmospheric circulation change in the Labrador Sea. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 148: 367-379.
63. Kageyama M, Valdes PJ, Ramstein G, Hewitt C, Wyputta U. 1999. Northern Hemisphere storm tracks in present day and last glacial maximum climate simulations: a comparison of the European PMIP models. Journal of Climate 12: 742-760.
64. Kettle AJ, Andreae MO, Amouroux D, Andreae TW, Bates TS, Berresheim H, Bingemer H, Boniforti R, Curran MAJ, DiTullio GR, Helas G, Jones GB, Keller MD, Kiene RP, Leck C, Levasseur M, Malin G, Maspero M, Matrai P, McTaggart AR, Mihalopoulos N, Nguyen BC, Novo A, Putuad JP, Rapsomanikis S, Roberts G, Schebeske G, Sharma S, Simo R. Staubes R, Turner S, Uher G. 1999. A global database of sea surface dimethylsulfide (DMS) measurements and a procedure to predict sea surface DMS as a function of latitude, longitude, and month. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 13: 399-444.
65. Kitoh A, Murakami S, Koide H. 2001. A simulation of the last glacial maximum with a coupled atmosphere-ocean model. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 2221-2224.
66. Koltermann KP, Sokov AV, Tereschenkov VP, Dobroliubov SA, Lorbacher K, Sy A. 1999. Decadal changes in the thermohaline circulation of the North Atlantic. Deep-Sea Research Part II: Topical Studies in Oceanography 46: 109-138.
67. Kuijpers A, Troelstra SR, Wisse M, Nielsen SH. van Weering TCE. 1998. Norwegian Sea overflow variability and NE Atlantic surface hydrography during the past 150 000 years. Marine Geology 152: 75-99.
68. Kushnir Y, Held I. 1996. Equilibrium atmospheric response to North Atlantic SST anomalies. Journal of Climate 9: 1208-1220.
69. Lambert SJ, Boer GJ. 2001. CMIPI evaluation and intercomparison of coupled climate models. Climate Dynamics 17: 83-106.
70. Latif M. 2001. Tropical Pacific/Atlantic Ocean interactions at multi-decadal timescales. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 539-542.
71. Latif M, Barnett TP. 1994. Causes of decadal climate variability over the North Pacific and North America, Science 266: 634-637.
72. Latif M, Barnett TP. 1995. Interactions of the tropical oceans. Journal of Climate 8: 952-964.
73. Latif M, Barnett TP. 1996. Decadal variability over the North Pacific and North America: dynamics and predictability. Journal of Climate 9: 2407-2423.
74. Latif M, Grotzner A. 2000. The equatorial Atlantic oscillation and its response to ENSO. Climate Dynamics 16: 213-218.
75. Latif M, Roeckner E, Mikolajewicz U, Voss R. 2000. Tropical stabilization of the thermohaline circulation in a greenhouse warming simulation. Journal of Climate 13: 1809-1813.
76. Ledwell JR, Watson AJ, Law CS. 1993. Evidence for slow mixing across the pycnocline from an open-ocean tracer-release experiment. Nature 364: 701-703.
77. Ledwell JR, Montgomery ET, Polzin KL, St Laurent LC, Schmitt RW, Toole JM. 2000. Evidence for enhanced mixing over rough topography in the abyssal ocean. Nature 403: 179-182.
78. Lee KE, Slowey NC, Herbert TD. 2001. Glacial sea surface temperatures in the sub-tropical North Pacific: a comparison of U-k37, delta 18O, and foraminiferal assemblage temperature estimates. Paleoceanography 16: 268-279.
79. Lelieveld J, Crutzen PJ, Dentener FJ. 1998. Changing concentration, lifetime and climate forcing of atmospheric methane. Tellus B 50: 128-150.
80. Li ZX. 2001. Thermodynamic air-sea interactions and tropical Atlantic SST dipole pattern. Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Part B: Hydrology, Oceans and Atmosphere 26: 155-157.
81. Liss PS, Galloway JN. 1993. Air-sea exchange of sulphur and nitrogen and their interaction in the marine atmosphere. In Interactions of C, N, P and S Biogeochemical Cycles and Global Change, Wollast R, MacKenzie FT, Chou L (eds). Springer: Berlin; 249-281.
82. Liss PS, Merlivat L. 1986. Air-sea exchange rates: introduction and synthesis. In The Role of Air-Sea Exchange in Geochemical Cycling, But-Menard P (ed.). Redell: Norwell, MA, 112-127.
83. Liss PS, Watson AJ, Brock EJ, Jahne B, Asher WE, Frew NM, Hasse L, Korenowski GM, Merlivat L, Phillips LF, Schluessel P, Woolf DK. 1997. Report Group 1 - physical processes in the microlayer and the air-sea exchange of trace gases. In The Sea Surface and Global Change, Liss PS, Duce RA (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge: 1-33.
84. Lohmann G, Gerdes R. 1998. Sea ice effects on the sensitivity of the thermohaline circulation. Journal of Climate 11: 2789-2803.
85. Maier-Reimer E, Mikolajewicz U, Crowley T. 1990. Ocean general circulation model sensitivity experiment with an open central American isthmus. Paleoceanography 5: 349-366.
86. Makinson K, Nicholls KW. 1999. Modeling tidal currents beneath Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf and on the adjacent continental shelf: their effect on mixing and transport Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 13 449-13 465.
87. Manabe S, Stouffer RJ. 1994. Multiple century response of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model to an increase of atmospheric carbon dioxide. Journal of Climate 7: 5-23.
88. Manabe S, Stouffer RJ. 1999. The role of thermohaline circulation in climate. Tellus 51: 91-109.
89. Manabe S, Stouffer RJ. 2000. Study of abrupt climate change by a coupled ocean-atmosphere model. Quaternary Science Reviews 19: 285-299.
90. Marotzke J. Willebrand J. 1991. Multiple equilibria of the global thermohaline circulation. Journal of Physical Oceanography 21: 1372-1385.
91. Marshall J, Schott F. 1999. Open-ocean convection: observations, theory, and models. Reviews of Geophysics 37: 1-64.
92. Marshall J, Kushnir Y, Battisti D, Chang P, Czaja A, Dickson R, Hurrell J. McCartney M, Saravanan R, Visbeck M. 2001. North Atlantic climate variability: phenomena, impacts and mechanisms. International Journal of Climatology 21: 1863-1898.
93. Matsumoto K, Lynch-Stieglitz J. 1999. Similar glacial and Holocene deep water circulation inferred from southeast Pacific benthic foraminiferal carbon isotope composition. Paleoceanography 14: 149-163.
94. Matsumoto K, Lynch-Stieglitz J. Anderson RF. 2001. Similar glacial and Holocene Southern Ocean hydrography. Paleoceanography 16: 445-454.
95. Mauritzen C. 1996. Production of dense overflow waters feeding the North Atlantic across the Greenland-Scotland Ridge. I. Evidence for a revised circulation scheme. Deep-Sea Research Part 1. Oceanographic Research Papers 43: 769-806.
96. McCartney MS, Mauritzen C. 2001. On the origin of the warm inflow to the Nordic seas. Progress in Oceanography 51: 125-214.
97. McDonagh EL, Heywood KJ, Meredith MP. 1999. On the structure, paths, and fluxes associated with Agulhas rings. Journal of Geophysical Research 104: 21 007-21 020.
98. Mikolajewicz U, Maier-Reimer E. 1994. Mixed boundary conditions in ocean general circulation models and their influence on the stability of the model's conveyor belt. Journal of Geophysical Research 99: 22 633-22 644.
99. 2-induced changes of the ocean's circulation and climate. Climate Dynamics 16: 627-642.
100. Mitchell Jr. JM 1976. Overview of climatic variability and its causal mechanisms. Quaternary Research 6: 481-493.
101. Murtugudde RG, Ballabrera-Poy J, Beauchamp J, Busalacchi AJ. 2001. Relationship between zonal and meridional modes in the tropical Atlantic. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 4463-4466.
102. 2O due to intensifying anoxia on the Indian continental shelf. Nature 408: 346-349.
103. Nevison CD, Weiss RF, Erickson III DJ. 1995. Global oceanic emissions of nitrous oxide. Journal of Geophysical Research 100: 15 809-15 820.
104. Nightingale PD, Malin G, Law CS, Watson AJ, Liss PS, Liddicoat MI, Boutin J, Upstill-Goddard RC. 2000. In situ evaluation of air-sea gas exchange parameterizations using novel conservative and volatile tracers. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 14: 373-387.
105. O'Dowd CD, Lowe JA, Smith MH, Davison B, Hewitt N, Harrison RM. 1997. Biogenic sulphur emissions and inferred non-sea-salt-sulphate cloud condensation nuclei in and around Antarctica. Journal of Geophysical Research 102: 12 839-12 854.
106. O'Dowd CD, Jimenez JL, Bahreini R, Hagan RC, Seinfeld JH, Hämeri K, Pirjola L, Kulmala M, Jennings SG, Hoffmann T. 2002. Marine aerosol formation from biogenic iodine emissions. Nature 417: 632-636.
107. Okumura Y, Xie SP, Numaguti A, Tanimoto Y. 2001. Tropical Atlantic air-sea interaction and its influence on the NAO. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 1507-1510.
108. Orsi AH, Johnson GC, Bullister JL. 1999. Circulation, mixing, and production of Antarctic bottom water. Progress in Oceanography 43: 55-109.
109. Osborn TJ, Wigley TML. 1994. A simple model for estimating methane concentration and lifetime variations. Climate Dynamics 9: 181-193.
110. Overpeck J, Anderson D, Trumbore S, Prell W. 1996. The southwest Indian Monsoon over the last 18 000 years. Climate Dynamics 12: 213-225.
111. Peng S, Robinson WA, Hoerling MP. 1997. The modeled atmospheric response to middle-latitude SST anomalies and its dependence on background circulation states. Journal of Climate 10: 971-987.
112. Penner JE, Andreae M, Annegarn H, Barrie L, Feichter J, Hegg D, Jayaraman A, Leaitch R, Murphy D, Nganga J, Pitari G. 2001. Aerosols, their direct and indirect effects. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis. Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K, Johnson CA (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge; 289-348.
113. Pierce DW. 2001. Distinguishing coupled ocean-atmosphere interactions from background noise in the North Pacific. Progress in Oceanography 49: 331-352.
114. Powell MD, Vickery PJ, Reinhold TA. 2003. Reduced drag coefficient for high wind speeds in tropical cyclones. Nature 422: 279-283.
115. Power SB, Kleeman R. 1993. Multiple equilibria in a global ocean general circulation model. Journal of Physical Oceanography 23: 1670-1681.
116. Rae F, Dingenen RV, Vignati E, Wilson J. Putaud J-P, Seinfeld JH, Admans P. 2000. Formation and cycling of aerosols in the global troposphere. Atmospheric Environment 34: 4215-4240.
117. Rahmstorf S. 1995. Bifurcations of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation in response to changes in the hydrological cycle. Nature 378: 145-149.
118. Rahmstorf S. 1998. Influence of Mediterranean outflow on climate. EOS Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 79: 281-282.
119. Rahmstorf S, Ganopolski A. 1999. Long-term global warming scenarios computed with an efficient coupled climate model. Climatic Change 43: 353-367.
120. Raper SCB, Gregory JM, Osborn TJ. 2001. Use of an upwelling-diffusion energy balance climate model to simulate and diagnose A/OGCM results. Climate Dynamics 17: 601-613.
121. Reid JL. 1979. On the contribution of the Mediterranean Sea outflow on climate. Deep-Sea Research 26: 1199-1223.
122. Renssen H, Isarin RFB, Vandenberghe J. 2001. Rapid climatic warming at the end of the last glacial: new perspectives. Global and Planetary Change 30: 155-165.
123. Ridgwell AJ, Maslin MA, Watson AJ. 2002. Reduced effectiveness of terrestrial carbon sequestration due to an antagonistic response of ocean productivity. Geophysical Research Letters 29: 10/1029/2001GLO14304.
124. Rind D, deMonocal P, Russell G, Sheth S, Collins D, Schmidt G, Teller J. 2001a. Effects of glacial meltwater in the GISS coupled atmosphere-ocean model - 1. North Atlantic deep water response. Journal of Geophysical Research 106: 27 335-27 353.
125. Rind D, Russell G, Schmidt G, Sheth S, Collins D, deMonocal P, Teller J. 2001b. Effects of glacial meltwater in the GISS coupled atmosphere-ocean model - 2. A bipolar seesaw in Atlantic deep water production. Journal of Geophysical Research 106: 27 355-27 365.
126. Rodwell MJ, Folland CK. 2002. Atlantic air-sea interaction and seasonal predictability. Quarterly Journal of Royal Meteorological Society 128: 1413-1443.
127. Rohling EJ. 1994. Review and new aspects concerning the formation of eastern Mediterranean sapropels. Marine Geology 122: 1-28.
128. Rosenfeldt D, Lahav R, Khain A, Pinsky M. 2002. The role of sea spray in cleansing air pollution over the ocean via cloud processing. Science 297: 1667-1670.
129. 2 transient increase in the GISS coupled model: regional coolings in a warming climate. Journal of Climate 12: 531-539.
130. Saji NH, Goswami BN, Vinayachandran PN, Yamagata T. 1999. A dipole mode in the tropical Indian Ocean. Nature 401: 360-363.
131. Saltzman ES, Whung PY, Mayewski PA. 1997. Methanesulfonate in the Greenland Ice Sheet Project 2 Ice Core. Journal of Geophysical Research 102: 26 649-26 657.
132. Saravanan R, Chang P. 2000. Interaction between tropical Atlantic variability and El Niño-southern oscillation. Journal of Climate 13: 2177-2194.
133. Schiller A, Mikolajewicz U, Voss R. 1997. The stability of the North Atlantic thermohaline circulation in a coupled ocean-atmosphere general circulation model. Climate Dynamics 13: 325-347.
134. Schmittner A, Appenzeller C, Stocker T. 2000. Enhanced Atlantic freshwater export during El Nino. Geophysical Research Letters 27: 1163-1166.
135. Schmitz WJ. 1995. On the inter-basin thermohaline circulation. Reviews of Geophysics 33: 151-173.
136. Seager R, Clement AC, Cane MA. 2000. Glacial cooling in the tropics: exploring the roles of tropospheric water vapour, surface wind speed, and boundary layer processes. Journal of the Atmospheric Sciences 57: 2144-2157.
137. Seitzinger SP, Kroeze C. 1998. Global distribution of nitrous oxide production and N inputs in freshwater and coastal marine ecosystems. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 12: 93-113.
138. Senior CA, Mitchell JFB. 2000. The time-dependence of climate sensitivity. Geophysical Research Letters 27: 2685-2688.
139. Servain J, Wainer I, Ayina HL, Roquet H. 2000. The relationship between the simulated climatic variability modes of the tropical Atlantic. International Journal of Climatology 20: 939-953.
140. Smet E, Lens P, van Langenhove H. 1998. Treatment of waste gases contaminated with odorous sulphur compounds. Critical Reviews in Environmental Science Technology 28: 89-117.
141. 2 measurements. Journal of Geophysical Research 90: 7005-7022.
142. Spence GD, Chapman NR. 2001. Fishing trawler nets massive "catch" of methane hydrates. EOS Transactions of the American Geophysical Union 82(50): 621-627.
143. Stocker TF, Marchal O. 2000. Abrupt climate change in the computer: is it real? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 97: 1362-1365.
144. 2 emission rates on the stability of the thermohaline circulation. Nature 388: 862-865.
145. Stocker TF, Clarke GRC, Le Treut H, Lindzen RS, Meleshko VP, Mugara RR, et al. 2001. Physical climate processes and feedbacks. In Climate Change 2001: The Scientific Basis, Houghton JT, Ding Y, Griggs DJ, Noguer M, van der Linden PJ, Dai X, Maskell K. Johnson CA (eds). Cambridge University Press: Cambridge: 415-470.
146. Stouffer RJ, Manabe S. 1999. Response of a coupled ocean-atmosphere model to increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide: sensitivity to the rate of increase. Journal of Climate 12: 2224-2237.
147. 2 in a coupled atmosphere-ocean model. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 4223-4226.
148. Sutton RT, Jewson SP, Rowell DP. 2000. The elements of climate variability in the tropical Atlantic region. Journal of Climate 13: 3262-3284.
149. 2: an estimate based on measurements of sea-air pCO(2) difference. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 94: 8292-8299.
150. Tegen I, Lacis AA, Fung I. 1996. The influence on climate forcing of mineral aerosols from disturbed soils. Nature 380: 419-422.
151. Thorpe RB, Bigg GR. 2000. Modelling the sensitivity of Mediterranean outflow to anthropogenically-forced climate change. Climate Dynamics 16: 355-368.
152. Thorpe RB, Gregory JM, Johns TC, Wood RA, Mitchell JFB. 2001. Mechanisms determining the Atlantic thermohaline circulation response to greenhouse gas forcing in a non-flux-adjusted coupled climate model. Journal of Climate 14: 3102-3116.
153. Timmermann A, Latif M, Voss R, Grotzner A. 1998. Northern hemispheric interdecadal variability: a coupled air-sea model. Journal of Climate 11: 1906-1931.
154. Turner DR, Hunter KA (eds). 2001 The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater, Wiley: Chichester.
155. Turner SM, Nightingale PD, Spokes LJ, Liddicoat MI, Liss PS. 1996. Increased dimethyl sulphide concentrations in seawater from in situ iron enrichment. Nature 383: 513-517.
156. Turrell WR, Slesser G, Adams RD, Payne R, Gillibrand PA. 1999. Decadal variability in the composition of Faroe Shetland Channel bottom water. Deep-Sea Research Part 1: Oceanographic Research Papers 46: 1-25.
157. Uher G, Andreae MO. 1997. Photochemical production of carbonyl sulphide in the North Sea water: a process study. Limnology and Oceanography 42: 432-442.
158. Upstill-Goddard RC, Barnes J, Frost T, Punshon S, Owens NP. 2000. Methane in the southern North Sea: low-salinity inputs, estuarine removal and atmospheric flux. Global Biogeochemical Cycles 14: 1205-1217.
159. Van Kreveld S, Sarnthein M, Erlenkauser H, Grootes P, Jung S, Nadeau MJ, Pflaumann U, Voelker A. 2000. Potential links between surging ice sheets, circulation changes and the Dansgaard-Oeschger cycles in the Irminger Sea, 60-18 kyr. Paleoceanography 15: 425-442.
160. Vellinga M, Wood R. 2002. Global climatic impacts of a collapse of the Atlantic thermohaline circulation. Climatic Change 54: 251-267.
161. Veum TE, Jansen E, Arnold M, Beyer I, Duplessey JC. 1992. Water mass exchange between the North Atlantic and the Norwegian Sea during the last 28 000 years. Nature 356: 783-785.
162. Vink A, Ruhlermann C, Zonneveld KAF, Mulitza S, Huls M, Willems H. 2001. Shifts in the position of the North Equatorial Current and rapid productivity changes in the western tropical Atlantic during the last glacial. Paleoceanography 16: 479-490.
163. Wadley MR, Bigg GR. 2000. Implementation of variable time stepping in an ocean general circulation model. Ocean Modelling 1: 71-80.
164. Wadley MR, Bigg GR. 2002. Impact of flow through the Canadian Archipelago on the North Atlantic and Arctic thermohaline circulation: an ocean modelling study. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Meteorological Society 128: 2187-2203.
165. 18O distributions. Global and Planetary Change 32: 89-109.
166. Wanninkhof R. 1992. Relationship between wind speed and gas exchange over the ocean. Journal of Geophysical Research 97: 7373-7382.
167. Wanninkhof R, Hitchcock G, Wiseman WJ, Vargo G, Ortner PB, Asher W, Ho DT, Schlosser P, Dickson ML, Masserini R, Fanning K, Zhang JZ. 1997. Gas exchange, dispersion, and biological productivity on the west Florida shelf: results from a Lagrangian tracer study. Geophysical Research Letters 24: 1767-1770.
168. Warner MJ, Roden GI. 1995. Chlorofluorocarbon evidence for recent ventilation of the deep Bering Sea. Nature 373: 409-412.
169. Watson AJ. 2001. Iron limitation in the oceans. In The Biogeochemistry of Iron in Seawater, Turner DR, Hunter KA (eds). Wiley: Chichester: 9-39.
170. Watson AJ, Liss PS. 1998. Marine biological controls on climate via the carbon and sulphur geochemical cycles. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London Series B 353: 41-51.
171. Watson AJ, Orr JC. In press. Carbon dioxide fluxes in the global ocean. In Ocean Biogeochemistry: A JGOFS Synthesis, Fasham M, Field J, Platt T, Zeitzschel B (eds). Springer-Verlag: Berlin.
172. Webster PJ, Moore AM, Loschnigg JP, Leben RR. 1999. Coupled ocean-atmosphere dynamics in the Indian Ocean during 1997-98. Nature 401: 356-360.
173. Weijer W, De Ruijter WP, Dijkstra HA. 2001. Stability of the Atlantic overturning circulation: competition between Bering Strait freshwater flux and Agulhas heat and salt sources. Journal of Physical Oceanography 31: 2385-2402.
174. Weinelt M, Sarnthein M, Pflaumann U, Schulz H, Jung S, Erlenkeuser H. 1996. Ice-free Nordic seas during the last glacial maximum? Potential sites of deepwater formation. Palaeoclimates 1: 283-309.
175. White WB, Peterson RG. 1996. An Antarctic circumpolar wave in surface pressure, wind, temperature and sea-ice extent. Nature 380: 699-702.
176. Wigley TML, Raper SCP. 1991. Internally generated natural variability of global-mean temperatures. In Greenhouse-Gas-Induced Climatic Change: A Critical Appraisal of Simulations and Observations, Schlesinger ME
177. Xu W, Barnett TP, Latif M. 1998. Decadal variability in the North Pacific as simulated by a hybrid coupled model. Journal of Climate 11: 297-312.
178. Yin JH, Battisti DS. 2001. The importance of tropical sea surface temperature patterns in simulations of last glacial maximum climate. Journal of Climate 14: 565-581.
179. Yu EF, Francois R, Bacon MP. 1996. Similar rates of modern and last-glacial ocean thermohaline circulation inferred from radiochemical data. Nature 379: 689-694.
180. Yuan XJ, Martinson DG. 2001. The Antarctic dipole and its predictability. Geophysical Research Letters 28: 3609-3612.
181. Zebiak SE. 1993. Air-sea interaction in the equatorial Atlantic region. Journal of Climate 6: 1567-1586.
182. 2 in Seawater: Equilibrium, Kinetics and Isotopes. Elsevier Oceanographic Series, Elsevier: Amsterdam.