On Activating Exemplars

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology

Volumn 34, Issue 4, 1998, Pages 330-354

  MacRae, C Neil ^a   Bodenhausen, Galen V ^a   Milne, Alan B ^a   Castelli, Luigi ^a   Schloerscheidt, Astrid M ^a   Greco, Sasha ^a  

^a NONE

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

EID: 0040944366     PISSN: 00221031     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1006/jesp.1998.1353     Document Type: Article

References (92)

1. Aine C. J., Harter M. R. Event-related potentials to Stroop stimuli: Color and word processing. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 425:1984;152-153.
2. Andersen S. M., Cole S. W. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 59:1990;384-399.
3. Andersen S. M., Glassman N. S. Responding to significant others when they are not there. Effects on interpersonal inference, motivation, and affect. Handbook of motivation and cognition. 1996;Guilford, New York. p. 262-321.
4. Andersen S. M., Glassman N. S., Chen S., Cole S. W. Transference in social perception: The role of chronic accessibility in significant-other representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 69:1995;41-57.
5. Baldwin M. W., Carrell S. E., Lopez D. F. My advisor and pope are watching me from the back of my mind. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 26:1990;435-454.
6. Baldwin M. W., Holmes J. G. Salient private audiences and awareness of the self. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 53:1987;1087-1098.
7. Bargh J. A. Conditional automaticity: Varieties of automatic influence in social perception and cognition. Uleman J. S., Bargh J. A. Unintended thought. 1989;3-51 Guilford, New York.
8. Bargh J. A. Auto-motives: Preconscious determinants of thought and behavior. Higgins E. T., Sorrentino R. M. Handbook of motivation and cognition. 1990;93-130 Guilford, New York.
9. Bargh J. A. The four horsemen of automaticity: Awareness, intention, efficiency, and control in social cognition. Wyer R. S. Jr., Srull T. K. Handbook of social cognition: Vol. 1. Basic processes. 1994;1-40 Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
10. Bargh J. A. The automaticity of everyday life. Wyer R. S. Jr. The automaticity of everyday life: Advances in social cognition. 1997;1-61 Erlbaum, Mahwah.
11. Bargh J. A., Bond R. N., Lombardi W. J., Tota M. E. The additive nature of chronic and temporary sources of construct accessibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 50:1986;869-878.
12. Bargh J. A., Chen M., Burrows L. Automaticity of social behavior: Direct effects of trait construct and stereotype activation on action. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71:1996;230-244.
13. Bargh J. A., Gollwitzer P. M. Environmental control of goal-directed action: Automatic and strategic contingencies between situations and behavior. Spaulding W. D. Integrative views of motivation, cognition, and emotion. 1994;71-124 Univ. of Nebraska, Lincoln.
14. Bargh J. A., Pietromonaco P. Automatic information processing and social perception: The influence of trait information presented outside of conscious awareness on impression formation. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 43:1982;437-449.
15. Beeman M. Semantic processing in the right hemisphere may contribute to drawing inferences from discourse. Brain and Language. 44:1993;80-120.
16. Bodenhausen G. V., Macrae C. N. Stereotype activation and inhibition. Wyer R. S. Stereotype activation and inhibition: Advances in social cognition. 1998;Erlbaum, Mahwah.
17. Bodenhausen G. V., Schwarz N., Bless H., Wänke M. Effects of atypical exemplars on racial beliefs: Enlightened racism or generalized appraisals. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 31:1995;48-63.
18. Brewer M. B. A dual process model of impression formation. Wyer R. S. Jr., Srull T. K. A dual-process model of impression formation: Advances in social cognition. 1988;1-36 Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
19. Brooks L. R. Decentralized control of categorization: The role of prior processing episodes. Neisser U. Concepts and conceptual development: The ecological and intellectual factors in categorization. 1987;141-147 Cambridge Univ. Press. Cambridge.
20. Bruner J. On perceptual readiness. Psychological Review. 64:1957;123-152.
21. Buckner R. L., Petersen S. E. What does neuroimaging tell us about the role of the prefrontal cortex in memory retrieval. The Neurosciences. 8:1996;47-55.
22. Busemeyer J. R., Myung I. J. An adaptive approach to human decision making: Learning theory, decision theory, and human performance. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 121:1992;177-194.
23. Chartrand T. L., Bargh J. A. Automatic activation of impression formation and memorization goals: Nonconscious goal priming reproduces effects of explicit task instructions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 71:1996;464-478.
24. Chen M., Bargh J. A. Consequences of automatic evaluation: Immediate behavioral predispositions to approach or avoid the stimulus. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. in press.
25. Cohen G., Martin M. Hemispheric differences in an auditory Stroop task. Perception and Psychophysics. 17:1975;79-83.
26. Cohen J. D., Dunbar K., McClelland J. L. On the control of automatic processes: A parallel distributed processing account of the Stroop effect. Psychological Review. 97:1990;332-361.
27. Dallas M., Merikle P. M. Semantic processing of non-attended visual information. Canadian Journal of Psychology. 30:1976;15-21.
28. Demb J. B., Desmond J. E., Wagner A. D., Vaidya C. J., Glover G. H., Gabrieli J. D. E. Semantic encoding and retrieval in the left inferior prefrontal cortex: A functional MRI study of task difficulty and process specificity. The Journal of Neuroscience. 15:1995;5870-5878.
29. Demonet F., Chollet F., Ramsay S., Cardebat D., Nespoulous J. L., Wise R., Rascol A., Frackowiak R. The anatomy of phonological and semantic processing in normal subjects. Brain. 115:1992;1753-1768.
30. Dennett D. C. Kinds of minds. 1996;Weidenfield & Nicolson. London.
31. Dijksterhuis A., van Knippenberg A. The relation between perception and behavior or how to win a game of trivial pursuit. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 74:1998;865-877.
32. Dunbar K. N., MacLeod C. M. A horse race of a different color: Stroop interference patterns with transformed words. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 10:1984;622-639.
33. Dyer F. N. The duration of word meaning responses: Stroop interference for different preexposures of the word. Psychonomic Science. 25:1971;229-231.
34. Elio R., Anderson J. R. The effects of category generalizations and instance similarity on schema abstraction. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Learning and Memory. 7:1981;397-418.
35. Eriksen B. A., Eriksen C. W. Effects of noise letters upon the identification of a target in a nonsearch task. Perception and Psychophysics. 16:1974;143-149.
36. Eriksen C. W., Hoffman J. E. Temporal and spatial characteristics of selective encoding from visual displays. Perception and Psychophysics. 12:1972;201-204.
37. Eriksen C. W., Schultz D. W. Information processing in visual search: A continuous flow conception and experimental results. Perception and Psychophysics. 25:1979;249-263.
38. Fiske S. T., Neuberg S. L. A continuum model of impression formation from category-based to individuating processes: Influences of information and motivation on attention and interpretation. Zanna M. P. Advances in experimental social psychology. 1990;1-74 Academic Press, San Diego.
39. Flowers J. H., Wilcox N. The effect of flanking context on visual classification: The joint contribution of interactions at different processing levels. Perception and Psychophysics. 32:1982;581-591.
40. Gilovich T. Seeing the past in the present: The effect of associations to familiar events on judgments and decisions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 40:1981;797-808.
41. Glaser M. O., Glaser W. R. Time course analysis of the Stroop phenomenon. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Human Perception and Performance. 8:1982;875-894.
42. Greenwald A. G., Banaji M. R. Implicit social cognition: Attitudes, self-esteem, and stereotypes. Psychological Review. 102:1995;4-27.
43. Guiard Y. Effect of processing mode on the degree of motor asymmetry in the manual Stroop test. Cortex. 17:1981;427-433.
44. Hamilton D. L., Sherman J. W. Stereotypes. Wyer R. S., Srull T. K. Handbook of social cognition: Vol. 2. Applications. 1994;1-68 Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
45. Hasher L., Zacks R. T. Automatic and effortful processes in memory. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 108:1979;356-388.
46. Herr P. M. Consequences of priming: Judgment and behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 51:1986;1106-1115.
47. Hintzman D. L. Psychological Review. 93:1986;411-428.
48. Johnson M. K., Hasher L. Human learning and memory. Annual Review of Psychology. 38:1987;631-668.
49. Kahneman D., Miller D. T. Norm theory: Comparing reality to its alternatives. Psychological Review. 93:1986;136-153.
50. Kahneman D., Triesman A. Changing views of attention and automaticity. Parasuraman R., Davies D. R. Varieties of attention. 1984;29-61 Academic Press, New York.
51. Kolb B., Whishaw I. Q. Fundamentals of human neuropsychology. 1985;Freeman, San Francisco.
52. LaBerge D., Samuels S. J. Toward a theory of automatic information processing in reading. Cognitive Psychology. 6:1974;293-323.
53. Lewicki P. Nonconscious social information processing. 1986;Academic Press, San Diego.
54. Logan G. D. Attention and automaticity in Stroop and priming tasks: Theory and data. Cognitive Psychology. 12:1980;523-553.
55. Logan G. D., Cowan W. B. On the ability to inhibit thought and action: A theory of an act of control. Psychological Review. 91:1984;295-327.
56. MacLeod C. M. Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: An integrative review. Psychological Bulletin. 109:1991;163-203.
57. Macrae C. N., Bodenhausen G. V., Milne A. B. The dissection of selection in person perception. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 69:1995;397-407.
58. Macrae C. N., Bodenhausen G. V., Milne A. B., Thorn T. M. J., Castelli L. On the activation of social stereotypes: The moderating role of processing objectives. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 33:1997;471-489.
59. Macrae C. N., Milne A. B., Bodenhausen G. V. Stereotypes as energy-saving devices: A peek inside the cognitive toolbox. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 66:1994;37-47.
60. Macrae C. N., Stangor C., Milne A. B. Activating social stereotypes: A functional analysis. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 30:1994;370-389.
61. Medin D. L., Altom M. W., Murphy T. D. Given versus induced category representations: Use of prototype and exemplar information in classification. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 10:1984;333-352.
62. Medin D. L., Schaffer M. M. Context theory of classification learning. Psychological Review. 85:1978;207-238.
63. Morton J. Categories of interference: Verbal mediation and conflict in card sorting. British Journal of Psychology. 60:1969;329-346.
64. Morton J., Chambers S. M. Selective attention to words and colours. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology. 25:1973;387-397.
65. Neisser U. Cognition and reality: Principles and implications of cognitive psychology. 1976;Freeman, San Francisco.
66. Newman J. P. Induced anxiety and Stroop color-word test performance: Hemispheric processing implications. International Journal of Neuroscience. 12:1981;63-66.
67. Norman D. A., Shallice T. Attention to action: Willed and automatic control of behavior. Davidson R. J., Schwartz G. E., Shapiro D. Consciousness and self-regulation: Advances in research and theory. 1986;1-18 Plenum, New York.
68. Nosofsky R. M. Attention and learning processes in the identification and categorization of integral stimuli. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Learning, Memory, and Cognition. 13:1987;87-108.
69. Nosofsky R. M., Palmeri T. J., McKinley S. C. Rule-plus-exception model of classification learning. Psychological Review. 101:1994;53-79.
70. Posner M. I., Keele S. W. On the genesis of abstract ideas. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 77:1968;353-363.
71. Posner M. I., Snyder C. R. R. Attention and cognitive control. Solso R. L. Information processing and cognition: The Loyola Symposium. 1975;55-85 Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
72. Sartori G., Job R. The oyster with four legs: A neuropsychological study on the interaction of visual and semantic information. Cognitive Neuropsychology. 5:1988;105-132.
73. Schank R. C., Abelson R. P. Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding: An inquiry into human knowledge structures. 1977;Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
74. Schmit V., Davis R. The role of hemispheric specialization in the analysis of Stroop stimuli. Acta Psychologica. 38:1974;149-158.
75. Schwarz N., Bless H. Scandals and the public's trust in politicians: Assimilation and contrast effects. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin. 18:1992;574-579.
76. Shaffer W. O., LaBerge D. Automatic encoding of unattended words. Journal of Verbal Learning and Verbal Behavior. 18:1979;413-426.
77. Sherman J. W. Development and mental representation of stereotypes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 70:1996;1126-1141.
78. Shiffrin R. M., Schneider W. Controlled and automatic human information processing: II. Perceptual learning, automatic attending, and a general theory. Psychological Review. 91:1977;392-413.
79. Sichel J. L., Chandler K. A. The color-word interference test: The effects of varied color-word combinations upon verbal response latency. Journal of Psychology. 72:1969;219-231.
80. Smith E. R. Content and process specificity in the effects of prior experiences. Srull T. K., Wyer R. S. Content and process specificity in the effects of prior experiences: Advances in social cognition. 1990;1-59 Erlbaum, Hillsdale.
81. Smith E. R., Zárate M. A. Exemplar-based model of social judgment. Psychological Review. 99:1992;3-21.
82. Stapel D. A., Koomen W., Van Der Pligt J. Categories of category accessibility: The impact of trait concept versus exemplar priming on person judgments. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 33:1997;47-76.
83. Strack F., Schwarz N., Bless H., Kübler A., Wänke M. Awareness of the influence as a determinant of assimilation versus contrast. European Journal of Social Psychology. 23:1993;53-62.
84. Stroop J. R. Studies of interference in serial verbal reactions. Journal of Experimental Psychology. 18:1935;643-662.
85. Taylor D. A. Time course of context effects. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 106:1977;404-426.
86. Tippet L. J., Glosser G., Farah M. J. A category-specific naming impairment after temporal lobectomy. Neuropsychologia. 34:1996;139-146.
87. Treisman A. M. Strategies and models of selective attention. Psychological Review. 76:1969;282-299.
88. Warren L. R., Marsh G. R. Hemispheric asymmetry in the processing of Stroop stimuli. Bulletin of the Psychonomic Society. 12:1978;214-216.
89. Warrington E. K., Shallice T. Category specific semantic impairments. Brain. 107:1984;829-853.
90. Winter L., Uleman J. S. When are social judgments made. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 47:1984;237-252.
91. Wise R., Chollet F., Hadar U., Friston K., Hoffner E., Frackowiak R. Distribution of cortical neural networks involved in word comprehension and word retrieval. Brain. 114:1991;1803-1817.
92. Zárate M. A., Smith E. R. Person categorization and stereotyping. Social Cognition. 8:1990;161-185.