The adrenal cortex and steroidogenesis as cellular and molecular targets for toxicity: Critical omissions from regulatory endocrine disrupter screening strategies for human health?

Journal of Applied Toxicology

Volumn 23, Issue 2, 2003, Pages 81-87

  Harvey, Philip W ^a   Everett, David J ^a  

^a UK   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Adrenal toxicity; Adrenocortical function; CYP enzyme inhibitors; Endocrine disruption; H295R; Human; Ovaries; Regulatory toxicology; StAR; Steroidogenesis; Testes; Wildlife

Indexed keywords

AMIDINOHYDRAZONE; AMINOGLUTETHIMIDE; ATRAZINE; CYANOKETONE; CYTOCHROME P450; CYTOCHROME P450 17; DIETHYLSTILBESTROL; DIMETHOATE; ECONAZOLE; ESTROGEN; ETOMIDATE; FENARIMOL; GLUCOCORTICOID; GUANABENZ; HYDROCORTISONE; HYDROXYSTEROID DEHYDROGENASE; KETOCONAZOLE; LETROZOLE; LINDANE; METYRAPONE; MICONAZOLE; MIFEPRISTONE; MITOTANE; PESTICIDE; PHTHALIC ACID 2 ETHYLHEXYL MONOESTER; PROCHLORAZ; REGULATOR PROTEIN; SPIRONOLACTONE; TRILOSTANE; UNINDEXED DRUG;

ADRENAL CORTEX DISEASE; ADRENAL CORTEX FUNCTION; ADRENAL CORTEX INSUFFICIENCY; ADRENAL GLAND; AQUATIC ENVIRONMENT; CELL LINE; CHEMICAL STRUCTURE; CHOLESTEROL SIDE CHAIN CLEAVAGE; DATA ANALYSIS; DRUG STRUCTURE; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM; ENVIRONMENTAL EXPOSURE; HUMAN; HYPOTHALAMUS HYPOPHYSIS SYSTEM; IN VITRO STUDY; IN VIVO STUDY; LETHALITY; MEDICAL ASSESSMENT; MEDICAL EXAMINATION; METHODOLOGY; NONHUMAN; OVARY FUNCTION; PREDICTION; PRIORITY JOURNAL; PUBLIC HEALTH; REVIEW; SCREENING TEST; STEROIDOGENESIS; STRESS; TARGET CELL; TESTIS FUNCTION; TOXICITY TESTING;

ADRENAL CORTEX; ANIMALS; CYTOCHROME P-450 ENZYME SYSTEM; ENDOCRINE SYSTEM; FISHES; HUMANS; HYDROCORTISONE; MOLECULAR STRUCTURE; OXIDOREDUCTASES; PESTICIDES; STEROIDS; TOXICITY TESTS;

EID: 0037357777     PISSN: 0260437X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1002/jat.896     Document Type: Review

References (57)

1. Akingbemi BT, Youker RT, Sottas CM, Ge R, Katz E, Klinefelter GR, Zirkin BR, Hardy MP. 2001. Modulation of rat Leydig cell steroidogenic function by di(2-ethylhexyl)phthalate. Biol. Reprod. 65: 1252-1259.
2. Albertson BD, Hill RB, Sprague KA, Wood KE, Nieman LK, Loriaux DL. 1994. Effect of the antiglucorticoid RU486 on adrenal steroidogenic enzyme activity and steroidogenesis. Eur. J. Endocrinol. 130: 195-200.
3. Alves SE, Akbari HM, Azmitia EC, Strand FL. 1993. Neonatal ACTH and corticosterone alter hypothalamic monoamine innervation and reproductive parameters in the female rat. Peptides 14: 379-384.
4. Andersen HR, Vingaard AM, Rasmusse TH, Gjerdmansen IM, Bonefeld-Jorgensen EC. 2000. Effects of currently used pesticides in assays for estrogenicity and aromatase activity in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 179: 1-12.
5. Andrews P, Freyberger A, Hartmann E, Eiben R, Loof I, Schmidt U, Temerowski M, Becka M. 2001. Feasibility and potential gains of enhancing the subacute rat study protocol (OECD test guideline no. 407) by additional parameters selected to determine endocrine modulation. A prevalidation study to determine endocrine mediated effects of the antiandrogenic drug flutamide. Arch. Toxicol. 75: 65-73.
6. Ashby J. 1997. A hierarchical approach to the evaluation of chemicals for estrogenic and other endocrine disrupting properties. Environ. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 3: 87-90.
7. Ashby J, Lefevre PA. 2000. The peripubertal male rat assay as an alternative to the Hershberger castrated male rat assay for the detection of anti-androgens, oestrogens and metabolic modulators. J. Appl. Toxicol. 20: 35-47.
8. Assikis VJ, Buzdar A. 2002. Recent advances in aromatase inhibitor therapy for breast cancer. Semin. Oncol. 29: 120-128.
9. Bisson M, Hontela A. 2002. Cytotoxic and endocrine-disrupting potential of atrazine, diazinon, endosulfan and mancozeb in adrenocortical steroidogenic cells of rainbow trout exposed in vitro. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 180: 110-117.
10. Calabrese EJ, Baldwin LA, Kostecki PT, Potter TL. 1997. A toxicologically based weight of evidence methodology for the relative ranking of chemicals of endocrine disruption potential. Regul. Toxicol. Pharmacol. 26: 36-40.
11. Camacho AM, Cash R, Brough AJ, Wilroy RS. 1967. Inhibition of adrenal steroidogenesis by aminoglutethimide and the mechanism of action. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 202: 114-120.
12. Cockburn A, Leist K-H. 1999. Current and regulatory trends in endocrine and hormonal toxicology. In Endocrine and Hormonal Toxicology, Harvey PW, Rush KC, Cockburn A (eds). John Wiley: Chichester; 507-534.
13. Colby HD. 1996. The adrenal cortex as a toxicological target organ. In The Adrenal in Toxicology. Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity, Harvey PW (ed.). Taylor and Francis: London; 131-163.
14. Danzo BJ. 1997. Environmental xenobiotics may disrupt normal endocrine function by interfering with the binding of physiological ligands to steroid receptors and binding proteins. Environ. Health. Perspect. 105: 294-301.
15. Dodge JA. 1998. Natural and anthropogenic environmental oestrogens: the scientific basis for risk assessment. Structure/activity relationships. Pure Appl. Chem. 70: 1725-1733.
16. EDSTAC. 1998. Endocrine Disrupter Screening and Testing Advisory Committee (EDSTAC) Final Report, August 1998. United States Environmental Protection Agency. http:// www.epa.gov/scipoly/oscpendo/history/finalrpt.htm
17. Harrison PTC. 2001. Endocrine disrupters and human health. Br. Med. J. 323: 1317-1318.
18. Harvey PW. 1996. The Adrenal in Toxicology: Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity. Taylor and Francis: London.
19. Harvey PW, Chevins PFD. 1987. Deleterious effects of adrenocorticotrophic hormone administration during late pregnancy upon offspring somatic, neurological and sexual development in mice. Teratology 35: 229-238.
20. Harvey PW, Johnson I. 2002. Approaches to the assessment of toxicity data with endpoints related to endocrine disruption. J. Appl. Toxicol. 22: 241-247.
21. Harvey PW, Rush KC, Cockburn A. 1999a. Endocrine and hormonal toxicology: an integrated mechanistic and target systems approach. In Endocrine and Hormonal Toxicology, Harvey PW, Rush KC, Cockburn A (eds). John Wiley: Chichester; 3-11.
22. Harvey PW, Rush KC, Cockburn A. 1999b. Endocrine and Hormonal Toxicology. John Wiley: Chichester.
23. Hayes T, Haston K, Tsui M, Hoang A, Haeffele C, Vonk A. 2002. Feminization of male frogs in the wild. Nature 419: 895-896.
24. Hinson JP, Raven PW. 1996. Adrenal morphology and hormone synthesis and regulation. In The Adrenal in Toxicology: Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity, Harvey PW (ed.). Taylor and Francis: London; 23-52.
25. Hinson JP, Raven PW. 1999. Adrenal toxicology. In Endocrine and Hormonal Toxicology, Harvey PW, Rush KC, Cockburn A (eds). John Wiley: Chichester; 67-89.
26. Hong H, Tong W, Fang H, Shi L, Xie Q, Perkins R, Walker JD, Branham W, Sheehan DM. 2002. Prediction of estrogen receptor binding for 58,000 chemicals using an integrated system of a tree based model with structural alerts. Environ. Health Perspect. 110: 29-36.
27. Hontela A, Rasmussen JB, Audet C, Chevalier G. 1992. Impaired cortisol stress response in fish from environments polluted by PAHs, PCBs and mercury. Arch. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 22: 278-283.
28. Hornsby PJ. 1989. Steroid and xenobiotic effects on the adrenal cortex: mediation by oxidative and other mechanisms. Free Radical Biol. Med. 6: 103-115.
29. Kossor DC, Kominami S, Takemori S, Colby HD. 1991. Role of the steroid 17α-hydroxylase in spironolactone-mediated destruction of adrenal cytochrome P-450. Mol. Pharmacol. 40: 321-325.
30. Liddle GW, Island DP, Lance EM, Harris AP. 1958. Alterations of adrenal steroid patterns in man resulting from treatment with a chemical inhibitor of 11β-hydroxylase. J. Clin. Endocrinol. 18: 906-912.
31. Loose DS, Kan PB, Hirst MA, Marcus RA, Feldman D. 1983. Ketoconazole blocks adrenal steroidogenesis by inhibiting cytochrome P-450 dependent enzymes. J Clin. Invest. 71: 1495-1499.
32. Mann RD. 1996. Adverse drug reactions and the adrenal glands: a pharmacoepidemiological approach. In The Adrenal in Toxicology: Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity, Harvey PW (ed.). Taylor and Francis: London; 279-300.
33. McCarthy JL, Reitz CW, Wesson LK. 1966. Inhibition of adrenal corticosteroidogenesis in the rat by cyanotrimethylandrostenolone, a synthetic androstane. Endocrinology 79: 1123-1139.
34. Meijs-Roelofs HM, Moll J. 1978. Sexual maturation and the adrenal glands. J. Reprod. Fertil. 52: 413-418.
35. Nebert DW, Russell DW. 2002. Clinical importance of cytochromes P-450. Lancet 360: 1155-1162.
36. Nichols DJ, Chevins PFD. 1981. Plasma corticosterone fluctuations during the oestrous cycle of the house mouse. Experientia 37: 319-320.
37. Norris DO, Donahue S, Dores RM, Lee JK, Maldonado TA, Ruth T, Woodling JD. 1999. Impaired adrenocortical response to stress in brown trout, Salmo trutta, living in metal-contaminated waters of the Eagle River, Colorado. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 113: 1-8.
38. Ohno S, Shinoda S, Toyoshima S, Nakazawa H, Makino T, Nakajin S. 2002. Effects of flavonoid phytochemicals on cortisol production and on activities of steroidogenic enzymes in human adrenocortical H295R cells. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 80: 355-363.
39. Potts GO, Creange JE, Harding HR, Schane HP. 1978. Trilostane, an orally active inhibitor of steroid biosynthesis. Steroids 32: 257-267.
40. Quabius ES, Balm PH, Wendelaar Bongar SE. 1997. Interrenal stress responsiveness of tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) is impaired by dietary exposure to PCB 126. Gen. Comp. Endocrinol. 108: 472-482.
41. Ramaley JA. 1977. Changes in adrenocortical function precede the onset of persistent estrus in rats exposed to constant light before puberty. Biol. Reprod. 17: 733-737.
42. Ramaley JA. 1978. The adrenal rhythm and puberty onset in the female rat. Life Sci. 23: 2079-2087.
43. Raven PW, Hinson JP. 1996. Transport, actions and metabolism of adrenal hormones and pathology and pharmacology of the adrenal gland. In The Adrenal in Toxicology: Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity, Harvey PW (ed.). Taylor and Francis: London; 53-79.
44. Ribelin WE. 1984. The effects of drugs and chemicals upon the structure of the adrenal gland. Fundam. Appl. Toxicol. 4: 105-119.
45. Rossol TJ, Yarrington JT, Latendresse J, Capen CC. 2001. Adrenal gland: structure, function and mechanisms of toxicity. Toxicol. Pathol. 29: 41-48.
46. Sanderson JT, Seinen W, Giesy JP, van den Berg M. 2000. 2-Chloro-s-triazine herbicides induce aromatase (CYP19) activity in H295R human adrenocortical carcinoma cells: a novel mechanism for estrogenicity? Toxicol. Sci. 54: 121-127.
47. Sanderson JT, Boerma J, Lansbergen GW, van den Berg M. 2002. Induction and inhibition of aromatase (CYP19) activity by various classes of pesticides in H295R human adrenocortical carcinoma cells. Toxicol. Appl. Pharmacol. 182: 44-54.
48. Sharpe RM, Skakkebaek NE. 1993. Are oestrogens involved in falling sperm counts and disorders of the male reproductive tract? Lancet. 341: 1392-1395.
49. Sohoni P, Lefevre PA, Ashby J, Sumpter JP. 2001. Possible androgenic/anti-androgenic activity of the insecticide fenitrothion. J. Appl. Toxicol. 21: 173-178.
50. Soll RM, Dollings PJ, Mitchell RD, Haffner DA. 1994. Guanabenz-related amidinohydrazones: potent non-azole inhibitors of aldosterone biosynthesis. Eur. J. Med. Chem. 29: 223-232.
51. Tucker MJ. 1996. The adrenal medulla as a toxicological target organ. In The Adrenal in Toxicology: Target Organ and Modulator of Toxicity, Harvey PW (ed.). Taylor and Francis: London; 165-182.
52. Walsh LP, Stocco DM. 2000. Effects of lindane on steroidogenesis and steroidogenic acute regulatory protein expression. Biol. Reprod. 63: 1024-1033.
53. Walsh LP, Kuratko CN, Stocco DM. 2000a. Econazole and miconazole inhibit steroidogenesis and disrupt steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression post-transcriptionally. J. Steroid. Biochem. Mol. Biol. 75: 229-236.
54. Walsh LP, McCormick C, Martin C, Stocco DM. 2000b. Roundup inhibits steroidogenesis acute regulatory (StAR) protein expression. Environ. Health Perspect. 108: 769-776.
55. Walsh LP, Webster DR, Stocco DM. 2000c. Dimethoate inhibits steroidogenesis by disrupting transcription of the steroidogenic acute regulatory (StAR) gene. J. Endocrinol. 167: 253-263.
56. Weber MM, Lang J, Abendinpour F, Zeilberger K, Adelmann B, Engelhardt D 1993. Different inhibitory effect of etomidate and ketoconazole on the human adrenal steroid biosynthesis. Clin. Invest. 71: 933-938.
57. Yamasaki K, Tago Y, Nagai K, Sawaki M, Noda S, Takasuki M. 2002. Comparison of toxicity studies based on the draft protocol for the 'Enhanced OECD test guideline no. 407′ and the research protocol of 'Pubertal development and thyroid function in immature male rats' with 6-n-propyl-2-thiouracil. Arch. Toxicol. 76: 495-501.