Implications of shortening in the Himalayan fold-thrust belt for uplift of the Tibetan Plateau

Tectonics

Volumn 21, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 12-1-12-25

  DeCelles, Peter G ^a   Robinson, Delores M ^a   Zandt, George ^a  

^a University of Arizona   (United States)

Author keywords

Collisional orogenic belts; Delamination; Himalaya; Lithosphere dynamics; Thrust belts; Tibetan Plateau

Indexed keywords

CONTINENTAL COLLISION; CRUSTAL SHORTENING; FOLD AND THRUST BELT; HIMALAYAN OROGENY; MANTLE STRUCTURE; TECTONIC EVOLUTION; UPLIFT;

ASIA; CHINA; HIMALAYAS; QINGHAI-XIZANG PLATEAU; TIBETAN PLATEAU;

EID: 0036971556     PISSN: 02787407     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1029/2001TC001322     Document Type: Article

References (193)

1. Achache, J., V. Courtillot, and Y. Xiu, Paleogeographic and tectonic evolution of southern Tibet since middle Cretaceous time: New paleomagnetic data and synthesis, J. Geophys. Res., 89, 10,311-10,339, 1984.
2. Ahmad, T., N. Harris, M. Bickle, H. Chapman, J. Bunbury, and C. Prince, Isotopic constraints on the structural relationships between the Lesser Himalayan Series and the High Himalayan Crystalline Series, Garhwal Himalaya, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 467-477, 2000.
3. Allègre, C. J., et al., Structure and evolution of the Himalaya-Tibet orogenic belt, Nature, 307, 17-22, 1984.
4. Alsdorf, D., and D. Nelson, Tibetan satellite magnetic low: Evidence for widespread melt in the Tibetan crust?, Geology, 27, 943-946, 1999.
5. Argand, E., La Tectonique de l'Asie, Proc. Int. Geol. Cong., 7, 171-372, 1924.
6. Armijo, R., P. Tapponnier, J. L. Mercier, and H. Han Tonglin, Quaternary extension in southern Tibet: Field observations and tectonic implications, J. Geophys. Res., 91, 13,803-13,872, 1986.
7. Beaumont, C., R. A. Jamieson, M. H. Nguyen, and B. Lee, Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation, Nature, 414, 738-742, 2001.
8. Besse, J., and V. Courtillot, Paleogeographic maps of the continents bordering the Indian Ocean since the Early Jurassic, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 11,791-11,808, 1988.
9. Besse, J., and V. Courtillot, Revised and synthetic apparent polar wander paths of the African, Eurasian, North American and Indian Plates, and true polar wander since 200 Ma, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 4029-4050, 1991.
10. Besse, J., V. Courtillot, J. P. Pozzi, M. Westphal, and Y. X. Zhou, Palaeomagnetic estimates of crustal shortening in the Himalayan thrusts and Zangbo Suture, Nature, 311, 621-626, 1984.
11. Bilham, R., K. Larson, and J. Freymuller, Indo-Asian convergence rates in the Nepal Himalaya, Nature, 386, 61-64, 1997.
12. Bird, P., Lateral extrusion of lower crust from under high topography in the isostatic limit, J. Geophys. Res., 96, 10,275-10,286, 1991.
13. Blisniuk, P. M., B. R. Hacker, J. Glodny, L. Ratschbacher, S. Bi, Z. Wu, M. O. McWilliams, and A. Calvert, Normal faulting in central Tibet since at least 13.5 Myr ago, Nature, 412, 628-632, 2001.
14. Brookfield, M. E., The Himalayan passive margin from Precambrian to Cretaceous times, Sediment. Geol., 84, 1-35, 1993.
15. Burbank, D. W., R. A. Beck, and T. Mulder, The Himalayan foreland basin, in The Tectonics of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 205-226, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
16. Burchfield, B. C., C. Zhiliang, K. V. Hodges, L. Yuping, L. H. Royden, D. Changrong, and X. Jiene, The South Tibetan detachment system, Himalayan orogen: Extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collisional mountain belt, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 269, 51 pp., 1992.
17. Burchfiel, B. C., Z. Chen, Y. Liu, and L. H. Royden, Tectonics of the Longmen Shan and adjacent regions, central China, Int. Geol. Rev., 37, 661-735, 1995.
18. Burg, J. P., and G. M. Chen, Tectonics and structural zonation of southern Tibet, Nature, 311, 219-223, 1984.
19. Catlos, E. J., T. M. Harrison, M. J. Kohn, M. Grove, R. J. Ryerson, C. Manning, and B. N. Upreti, Geochronologic and thermobarometric constraints on the evolution of the Main Central thrust, central Nepal Himalaya, J. Geophys. Res., 106, 16,177-16,204, 2001.
20. Catlos, E. J., T. M. Harrison, C. Manning, M. Grove, S. M. Rai, M. S. Hubbard, and B. N. Upreti, Records of the evolution of the Himalayan orogen from in situ Th-Pb ion microprobe dating of monazite: Eastern Nepal and western Garhwal, J. Asian Earth Sci., 20, 459-479, 2002.
21. Chang, C.-F., and S.-L. Zheng, Tectonic features of the Mount Jolmu Lungma region in southern Tibet, China (in Chinese), Sci. Geol. Sinica, 1, 1-12, 1973.
22. Chemenda, A. I., J.-P. Burg, and M. Mattauer, Evolutionary model of the Himalaya-Tibet system: Geopoem based on new modelling, geological and geophysical data, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 174, 397-409, 2000.
23. Chen, W.-P., and H. Kao, Seismotectonics of Asia: Some recent progress, in The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 37-62, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
24. Chen, W.-P., and P. Molnar, Focal depths of intracontinental and intraplate earthquakes and their implications for the thermal and mechanical properties of the lithosphere, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 4183-4214, 1983.
25. Chen, W.-P., and S. Özalaybey, Correlation between seismic anisotropy and Bouguer anomalies in Tibet and its implications for lithosphereic structures, Geophys. J. Int., 135, 93-1010, 1998.
26. Chen, Z., B. C. Burchfiel, Y. Liu, R. King, L. H. Royden, W. Tang, J. Zhao, and X. Zhang, GPS measurements from eastern Tibet and their implications for India/Eurasia intracontinental deformation, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 16,215-16,227, 2000.
27. Chung, S.-L., C.-H. Lo, T.-Y. Lee, Y. Zhang, Y. Xie, X. Li, K.-L. Wang, and P.-L. Wang, Diachronous uplift of the Tibetan plateau starting 40 Myr ago, Nature, 394, 769-773, 1998.
28. Clark, M. K., and L. H. Royden, Topographic ooze: Building the eastern margin of Tibet by lower crustal flow, Geology, 28, 703-706, 2000.
29. Coleman, M. E., U-Pb constraints on Oligocene-Miocene deformation and anatexis within the central Himalaya, Marsyandi valley, Nepal, Am. J. Sci., 298, 553-571, 1998.
30. Coleman, M. E., and K. V. Hodges, Evidence for Tibetan Plateau uplift before 14 Myr ago from a new minimum estimate for east-west extension, Nature, 474, 49-52, 1995.
31. Coney, P. J., and S. J. Reynolds, Cordilleran Benioff zones, Nature, 270, 403-406, 1977.
32. Constenius, K. N., Late Paleogene extensional collapse of the Cordilleran foreland fold and thrust belt, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 108, 20-39, 1996.
33. 39Ar dating, petrological characteristics and geodynamical significance, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 79, 281-302, 1986.
34. Coward, M. P., and R. W. H. Butler, Thrust tectonics and the deep structure of the Pakistan Himalaya, Geology, 13, 417-420, 1985.
35. D'Andrea, J., T. M. Harrison, and M. Grove, The thermal and physical state of the South Tibetan middle crust between 20-8 Ma: U-Th-Pb and Nd isotopic evidence from the Nyainqentanghla Massif, in 14th Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet Workshop, edited by E. Sobel, et al., Kloster Ettal, Germany, 1999.
36. Davies, J. H., and F. von Blanckenburg, Slab breakoff: A model of lithosphere detachment and its test in the magmatism and deformation of collisional orogens, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 129, 85-102, 1995.
37. Davis, D., J. Suppe, and F. A. Dahlen, Mechanics of fold-and-thrust belts and accretionary wedges, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 1153-1172, 1983.
38. DeCelles, P. G., and K. N. Giles, Foreland basin systems, Basin Res., 8, 105-123, 1996.
39. DeCelles, P. G., G. E. Gehrels, J. Quade, and T. P. Ojha, Eocene-early Miocene foreland basin development and the history of Himalayan thrusting, western and central Nepal, Tectonics, 17, 741-765, 1998a.
40. DeCelles, P. G., G. E. Gehrels, J. Quade, P. A. Kapp, T. P. Ojha, and B. N. Upreti, Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 2-21, 1998b.
41. DeCelles, P. G., G. E. Gehrels, J. Quade, B. LaReau, and M. Spurlin, Tectonic implications of U-Pb zircon ages of the Himalayan orogenic belt in Nepal, Science, 288, 497-499, 2000.
42. DeCelles, P. G., D. M. Robinson, J. Quade, T. P. Ojha, C. N. Garzione, P. Copeland, and B. N. Upreti, Stratigraphy, structure, and tectonic evolution of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt in western Nepal, Tectonics, 20, 487-509, 2001.
43. Deng, W., A preliminary study on the petrology and petrochemistry of the Quaternary volcanic rocks of northern Tibet autonomous region (in Chinese), Acta Geol. Sinica, 52, 148-162, 1978.
44. DePietro, J. A., and C. E. Isachsen, U-Pb zircon ages from the Indian plate in northwest Pakistan and their significance to Himalayan and pre-Himalayan geologic history, Tectonics, 20, 510-525, 2001.
45. de Sigoyer, J., S. Guillot, J.-M. Lardeaux, and G. Mascle, Glaucophane-bearing eclogites in the Tso Morari dome (eastern Ladakh, NW Himalaya), Eur. J. Mineral., 9, 1073-1083, 1997.
46. Dewey, J. F., and J. M. Bird, Mountain belts and the new global tectonics, J. Geophys. Res., 75, 2625-2647, 1970.
47. Dewey, J. F., R. M. Shackleton, C. Chang, and Y. Sun, The tectonic development of the Tibetan Plateau, in The Geological Evolution of Tibet, edited by C. Chang, et al., Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 327, 379-413, 1988.
48. Dewey, J. F., S. Cande, and W. C. Pitman, Tectonic evolution of the India/Eurasia collision zone, Eclogae Geol. Helv., 82, 717-734, 1989.
49. Dhital, M. R., and K. Kizaki, Structural aspects of the northern Dang, Lesser Himalaya, Bull. Coll. Sci., Univ. Ryukyus, 45, 159-182, 1987.
50. Ding, L., P. Kapp, A. Yin, D. Wangming, and Z. Dalai, Early Tertiary volcanism in the Qiantang terrane of central Tibet: Evidences for a transition from oceanic to continental subduction, J. Petrol., in press, 2002.
51. Edwards, M. A., and T. M. Harrison, When did the roof collapse?: Late Miocene N-S extension in the High Himalaya revealed by Th-Pb monazite dating of the Khula Kangri granite, Geology, 25, 543-546, 1997.
52. Ekstrom, G., A broadband method of earthquake analysis, Ph.D. dissertation, 215 pp., Harvard Univ., Cambridge, Mass., 1987.
53. England, P., and G. Houseman, The mechanics of the Tibetan Plateau, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 326, 301-320, 1988.
54. Fielding, E., B. Isacks, M. Barazangi, and C. Duncan, How flat is Tibet?, Geology, 22, 163-167, 1994.
55. Fouch, M. J., K. M. Fischer, M. E. Wysession, and T. J. Clarke, Shear wave splitting, continental keels, and patterns of mantle flow, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 6255-6276, 2000.
56. Furlong, K. P., and T. J. Owens, Tibetan mantle fabric and crust-mantle kinematics, Eos Trans. AGU, 78(46), F173, Fall Meet. Suppl., 1997.
57. Gaetani, M., and E. Garzanti, Multicyclic history of the northern India continental margin (northwestern Himalaya), AAPG Bull., 75, 1427-1446, 1991.
58. Gaetani, M., F. Jadoul, E. Erba, and E. Garzanti, Jurassic and Cretaceous orogenic events in the North Karakorum: Age constraints from sedimentary rocks, in Himalayan Tectonics, edited by P. J. Treloar and M. P. Searle, Geol. Soc. Spec. Publ., 73, 39-52, 1993.
59. Gansser, A., Geology of the Himalayas, 289 pp., Wiley- Interscience, New York, 1964.
60. 18O vs. altitude gradients in meteoric water across the Nepal Himalaya, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 183, 215-230, 2000a.
61. Garzione, C. N., D. L. Dettman, J. Quade, P. G. DeCelles, and R. F. Butler, High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal, Geology, 28, 339-342, 2000b.
62. Godin, L., R. L. Brown, and S. Hanmer, High strain zone in the hanging wall of the Annapurna detachment, central Nepal Himalaya, in Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain roots to mountain tops, edited by A. Macfarlane, R. B. Sorkhabi, and J. Quade, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 328, 199-210, 1999.
63. Grand, S. P., R. D. van der Hilst, and S. Widiyantoro, Global seismic tomography: A snapshot of convection in the Earth, GSA Today, 7, 1-7, 1997.
64. Grujic, D., L. S. Hollister, and R. R. Parrish, Himalayan metamorphic sequence as an orogenic channel: Insight from Bhutan, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 198, 177-191, 2002.
65. Hacker, B. R., X. Wang, E. A. Eide, and L. Ratschbacher, The Qinling-Dabie ultra-high pressure collisional orogen, in The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 345-370, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
66. Hacker, B. R., E. Gnos, L. Ratschbacher, M. Grove, M. McWilliams, S. V. Sobolev, J. Wan, and W. Zhenhan, Hot and dry deep crustal xenoliths from Tibet, Science, 287, 2463-2466, 2000.
67. Harris, N. B. W., R. Xu, C. L. Lewis, C. J. Hawkesworth, and Y. Zhang, Isotope geochemistry of the 1985 Tibet Geotraverse, Lhasa to Golmud, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London. Ser. A, 327, 263-285, 1988.
68. Harrison, T. M., P. Copeland, W. S. F. Kidd, and A. Yin, Raising Tibet, Science, 255, 1663-1970, 1992.
69. Harrison, T. M., P. Copeland, W. S. F. Kidd, and O. M. Lovera, Activation of the Nyainqentanghla shear zone: Implications for uplift of the southern Tibetan Plateau, Tectonics, 14, 658-676, 1995.
70. Harrison, T. M., M. Grove, K. D. McKeegan, C. D. Lovera, O. M. Coath, and P. Le Fort, Origin and episodic emplacement of the Manaslu intrusive complex, central Himalaya, J. Petrol., 40, 3-19, 1999.
71. Hauck, M. L., K. D. Nelson, L. D. Brown, W. Zhao, and A. R. Ross, Crustal structure of the Himalayan orogen at ∼90° east longitude from Project INDEPTH deep reflection profiles, Tectonics, 17, 481-500, 1998.
72. Henry, P., X. Le Pichon, and B. Goffe, Kinematic, thermal and petrological model of the H-imalayas: Constraints related to metamorphism within the underthrust Indian crust and topographic elevation, Tectonophysics, 273, 31-56, 1997.
73. Hirn, A., Features of the crust-mantle structure of Himalayas- Tibet: A comparison with seismic traverses of Alpine, Pyrenean and Variscan orogenic belts, Philos Trans. R. Soc. London, Ser. A, 326, 17-32, 1988.
74. Hirn, A., et al., Seismic anisotropy as an indicator of mantle flow beneath the Himalayas and Tibet, Nature, 375, 571-574, 1995.
75. Hodges, K. V., Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 324-350, 2000.
76. Hodges, K. V., and J. D. Walker, Extension in the Cretaceous Sevier orogen, North American cordillera, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 104, 560-569, 1992.
77. Hodges, K. V., R. R. Parrish, and M. P. Searle, Tectonic evolution of the central Annapurna Range, Nepalese Himalayas, Tectonics, 15, 1264-1291, 1996.
78. Hodges, K. V., J. M. Hurtado, and K. X. Whipple, Southward extrusion of Tibetan crust and its effect on Himalayan tectonics, Tectonics, 20, 799-809, 2001.
79. Holt, W. E., Correlated crust and mantle strain fields in Tibet, Geology, 28, 67-70, 2000.
80. Holt, W. E., and T. C. Wallace, Crustal thickness and upper mantle velocities in the Tibetan plateau region from inversion of regional Pn waveforms: Evidence for a thick upper mantle lid beneath southern Tibet, J. Geophys. Res., 95, 12,499-12,525, 1990.
81. Horton, B. K., A. Yin, M. S. Spurlin, J. Zhou, and J. Wang, Paleocene-Eocene syncontractional sedimentation in narrow, lacustrine-dominated basins of east- central Tibet, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 114, 771-786, 2002.
82. Hurtado, J. M.Jr., K. V. Hodges, and K. X. Whipple, Neotectonics of the Thakkhola graben and implications for recent activity on the South Tibetan fault system in the central Nepal Himalaya, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 113, 222-240, 2001.
83. Jiang, X., M. K. McNutt, and Y. Jin, Models of lithospheric deformation beneath the Altyn Tagh and West Kunlun faults from recent gravity surveys, Eos, Trans. AGU, 80(46), F1008, Fall Meet. Suppl., 1999.
84. Jin, Y., M. K. McNutt, and Y.-S. Zhu, Mapping the descent of Indian and Eurasian plates beneath the Tibetan Plateau from gravity anomalies, J. Geophys. Res., 101, 11,275-11,290, 1996.
85. Jordan, T. H., Composition and development of the continental tectosphere, Nature, 274, 544-548, 1978.
86. Kapp, P., Blueschist-bearing metamorphic core complexes in the Qiangtang block reveal deep crustal structure of northern Tibet: Reply, Geology, 29, 91, 2001.
87. Kapp, P., A. Yin, C. E. Manning, M. Murphy, T. M. Harrison, M. Spurlin, L. Ding, X.-G. Deng, and C.-M. Wu, Blueschist-bearing metamorphic core complexes in the Qiangtang block reveal deep crustal structure of northern Tibet, Geology, 28, 19-22, 2000.
88. Kapp, P., A. Yin, and C. E. Manning, Blueschist-bearing metamorphic core complexes in the Qiangtang block reveal deep crustal structure of northern Tibet: Reply, Geology, 29, 664, 2001.
89. Kapp, P., M. A. Murphy, A. Yin, T. M. Harrison, D. Lin, and G. Jinghu, Mesozoic and Cenozoic tectonic evolution of the Shiquanhe area of western Tibet, Tectonics, 21, doi:10.1029/2001TC001332, in press, 2002.
90. Kind, R., et al., Comprehensive seismic images of the crust and upper mantle beneath Tibet, Science, 298, 1219-1222, 2002.
91. Kirby, E., K. X. Whipple, B. C. Burchfiel, W. Tang, G. Berger, Z. Sun, and Z. Chen, Neotectonics of the Min Shan, China: Implications for mechanisms driving Quaternary deformation along the eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 375-393, 2000.
92. Klootwijk, C. T., P. J. Conaghan, and C. McA, Powell, The Himalayan arc: Large-scale continental subduction, oroclinal bending and back-arc spreading, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 75, 167-183, 1985.
93. Kohn, M. J., and C. D. Parkinson, Petrologic case for Eocene slab breakoff during the Indo-Asian collision, Geology, 30, 591-594, 2002.
94. Kosarev, G., R. Kind, S. V. Sobolev, X. Yuan, W. Hanka, and S. Oreshin, Seismic evidence for a detached Indian lithospheric mantle beneath Tibet, Science, 283, 1306-1309, 1999.
95. Larson, K. M., R. Burgmann, R. Bilham, and J. T. Freymueller, Kinematics of the India-Eurasia collision zone from GPS measurements, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 1077-1093, 1999.
96. Lavé, J., and J. P. Avouac, Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 5735-5770, 2000.
97. Lavé, J., J. P. Avouac, R. Lacassin, P. Tapponnier, and J. P. Montagner, Seismic anisotropy beneath Tibet: Evidence for eastward extrusion of the Tibetan lithosphere?, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 140, 83-96, 1996.
98. LeFort, P., Metamorphism and magmatism during the Himalayan collision, in Collision Tectonics, edited by M. P. Coward and A. C. Ries, Geol. Soc. Spec. Pub., 19, 159-172, 1986.
99. Le Pichon, X., M. Fournier, and L. Jolivet, Kinematics, topography, shortening, and extrusion in the India- Eurasia collision, Tectonics, 11, 1085-1098, 1992.
100. Le Pichon, X., P. Henrey, and B. Goffe, Uplift of Tibet: From eclogites to granulites-Implications for the Andean Plateau and the Variscan belt, Tectonophysics, 273, 57-76, 1997.
101. Li, D., D. Liang, C. Jia, G. Wang, Q. Wu, and D. He, Hydrocarbon accumulations in the Tarim basin, China, AAPG Bull., 80, 1587-1603, 1996.
102. Lillie, R. J., G. D. Johnson, M. Yousuf, A. S. H. Zamin, and R. S. Yeats, Structural development within the Himalayan foreland fold-and-thrust belt of Pakistan, in Sedimentary Basins and Basin Forming Mechanisms, edited by C. Beaumont and A. J. Tankard, Mem. Can. Soc. Pet. Geol., 12, 379-392, 1987.
103. Makovsky, Y., and S. L. Klemperer, Measuring the seismic properties of Tibetan bright spots: Evidence for free aqueous fluids in the Tibetan middle crust, J. Geophys. Res., 104, 10,795-10,825, 1999.
104. Manickavasagam, R. M., A. K. Jain, S. Singh, and A. Asokan, Metamorphic evolution of the northwest Himalaya, India: Pressure-temperature data, inverted metamorphism, and exhumation in the Kashmir, Himachal, and Garhwal Himalayas, in Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops, edited by A. Macfarlane, R. B. Sorkhabi, and J. Quade, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 328, 179-198, 1999.
105. Marquer, D., H. S. Chawla, and N. Challandes, Pre- alpine high-grade metamorphism in High Himalaya crystalline sequences: Evidence from Lower Palaeozoic Kinnaur Kailas granite and surrounding rocks in the Sutlej Valley (Himachal Pradesch, India), Eclogae Geol. Helv., 93, 207-220, 2000.
106. Mattauer, M., Intracontinental subduction, crust-mantle décollement and crustal-stacking wedge in the Himalayas and other collision belts, in Collision Tectonics, edited by M. P. Coward and A. C. Ries, Spec. Pub. Geol. Soc., 19, 37-50, 1986.
107. Matte, P., P. Tapponnier, N. Arnaud, L. Bourjot, J. P. Avouac, P. Vidal, L. Qing, P. Yusheng, and W. Yi, Tectonics of western Tibet, between the Tarim and the Indus, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 142, 311-330, 1996.
108. Matte, P., M. Mattauer, J. M. Olivet, and D. A. Griot, Continental subduction beneath Tibet and the Himalayan orogen: A review, Terra Nova, 9, 264-270, 1997.
109. McNamara, D. E., T. J. Owens, P. G. Silver, and F. T. Wu, Shear wave anisotropy beneath the Tibetan Plateau, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 13,655-13,665, 1994.
110. McNamara, D. E., W. R. Walter, T. J. Owens, and C. J. Ammon, Upper mantle velocity structure beneath the Tibetan Plateau from Pn travel time tomography, J. Geophys. Res., 102, 493-505, 1997.
111. Métivier, F., Y. Gaudemer, P. Tapponnier, and B. Meyer, Northeastward growth of the Tibet plateau deduced from balanced reconstruction of two depositional areas: The Qaidam and Hexi Corrdor basins, China, Tectonics, 17, 823-842, 1998.
112. Miller, C., R. Schuster, U. Klotzli, W. Frank, and R. Purtscheller, Post-collisional potassic and ultrapotassic magmatism in SW Tibet: Geochemical and Sr-Nd-Pb-O isotopic constraints for mantle source characteristics and petrogenesis, J. Petrol., 40, 1399-1424, 1999.
113. Miller, C., R. Schuster, U. Klotzli, W. Frank, and B. Grasemann, Late Cretaceous-Tertiary magmatic and tectonic events in the Transhimalaya batholith (Kailas area, SW Tibet), Schweiz. Mineral. Petrogr. Mitt., 80, 1-20, 2000.
114. Molnar, P., A review of geophysical constraints on the deep structure of the Tibetan Plateau, the Himalaya and the Karakoram, and their tectonic implications, Philos. Trans. R. Soc. London. Ser. A, 326, 33-88, 1988.
115. Molnar, P., and W.-P. Chen, Focal depths and fault plane solutions of earthquakes under the Tibetan Plateau, J. Geophys. Res., 88, 1180-1196, 1983.
116. Molnar, P., and H. Lyon-Caen, Fault plane solutions of earthquakes and active tectonics of the Tibetan Plateau and its margins, Geophys. J. Int., 99, 123-153, 1989.
117. Molnar, P., and P. Tapponnier, Cenozoic tectonics of Asia: Effects of a continental collision, Science, 189, 419-426, 1975.
118. Molnar, P., P. England, and J. Martinod, Mantle dynamics, uplift of the Tibetan Plateau, and the Indian Monsoon, Rev. Geophys., 31, 357-396, 1993.
119. Mugnier, J.-L., G. Mascle, and T. Faucher, Structure of the Siwaliks of western Nepal: An intracontinental accretionary prism, Int. Geol. Rev., 35, 32-47, 1993.
120. Murphy, M. A., and A. Yin, Structural evolution and sequence of thrusting in the Tethyan fold-thrust belt and Indus-Yalu suture zone, southwest Tibet, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 115, 21-34, 2003.
121. Murphy, M. A., A. Yin, T. M. Garrison, S. B. Durr, Z. Chen, et al., Significant crustal shortening in south- central Tibet prior to the Indo-Asian collision, Geology, 25, 719-722, 1997.
122. Murphy, M. A., A. Yin, P. Kapp, T. M. Harrison, L. Din, and J. Guo, Southward propagation of the Karakoram fault system into southwest Tibet: Timing and magnitude of slip, Geology, 27, 719-722, 1999.
123. Najman, Y., and E. Garzanti, Reconstructing early Himalayan tectonic evolution and paleogeography from Tertiary foreland basin sedimentary rocks, northern India, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 112, 435-449, 2000.
124. 39Ar dating of single detrital muscovite grains from early foreland basin sediments in India: Implications for early Himalayan evolution, Geology, 25, 535-538, 1997.
125. Nelson, K. D., et al., Partially molten middle crust beneath southern Tibet: A synthesis of Project INDEPTH results, Science, 274, 1684-1688, 1996.
126. Ni, J., and M. Barazangi, Seismotectonics of the Himalayan collision zone: Geometry of the underthrusting Indian plate beneath the Himalaya, J. Geophys. Res., 89, 1147-1163, 1984.
127. O'Brien, P. J., N. Zotov, R. Law, M. A. Khan, and M. Q. Jan, Coesite in Himalayan eclogite and implications for models of India-Asia collision, Geology, 29, 435-438, 2001.
128. Owens, T. J., and G. Zandt, Implications of crustal property variations for models of Tibetan Plateau evolution, Nature, 387, 37-43, 1997.
129. Pan, Y., Unroofing history and structural evolution of the southern Lhasa terrane, Tibetan Plateau: Implications for the continental collision between India and Asia, Ph.D. dissertation, 287 pp., State Univ. of New York, Albany, 1993.
130. Parrish, R. R., and K. V. Hodges, Isotopic constraints on the age and provenance of the Lesser and Greater Himalayan sequences, Nepalese Himalaya, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 108, 904-911, 1996.
131. Patriat, P., and J. Achache, Indian-Asia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanisms of plates, Nature, 311, 615-621, 1984.
132. Patzelt, A., H. Li, J. Wang, and E. Appel, Palacomagnetism of Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments from southern Tibet: Evidence for the extent of the northern margin of India prior to the collision with Eurasia, Tectonophysics, 259, 259-284, 1996.
133. Pearson, O. N., Structural evolution of the central Nepal fold-thrust belt and regional tectonic and structural sifnificance of the Ramgarh thrust, Ph.D. dissertation, 231 pp., Univ. of Ariz., Tucson, 2002.
134. Pêcher, A., The metamorphism in the central Himalaya, J. Metamorph. Geol., 7, 31-41, 1989.
135. Peltzer, G., and P. Tapponnier, Formation and evolution of strike-slip faults, rifts, and basins during the India-Asia collision: An experimental approach, J. Geophys. Res., 93, 15,085-15,117, 1988.
136. Pivnik, D. A., and N. A. Wells, The transition from Tethys to the Himalaya as recorded in northwest Pakistan, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 108, 1295-1313, 1996.
137. Platt, J. P., and P. C. England, Convective removal of lithosphere beneath mountain belts: Thermal and mechanical consequences, Am. J. Sci., 294, 307-336, 1994.
138. Pogue, K. R., M. D. Hylland, R. S. Yeats, W. U. Khattak, and A. Hussain, Stratigraphic and structural framework of Himalayan foothills, northern Pakistan, in Himalaya and Tibet: Mountain Roots to Mountain Tops, edited by A. Macfarlane, R. B. Sorkhabi, and J. Quade, Spec. Pap. Geol. Soc. Am., 328, 257-274, 1999.
139. Powell, C. McA., and P. J. Conaghan, Plate tectonics and the Himalayas, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 20, 1-12, 1973.
140. Powers, P. M., R. J. Lillie, and R. S. Yeates, Structure and shortening of the Kangra and Debra Dun reentrants, Sub-Himalaya, India, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 110, 1010-1027, 1998.
141. Ratschbacher, L., W. Frisch, and L. Guanghua, Distributed deformation in southern and western Tibet during and after the India-Asia collision, J. Geophys. Res., 99, 19,917-19,945, 1994.
142. Robinson, D. M., P. G. DeCelles, P. J. Patchett, and C. N. Garzione, The kinematic history of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes, Earth Planet, Sci. Lett., 192, 507-521, 2001.
143. Robinson, D. M., G. Dupont-Nivet, G. E. Gehrels, and Y. Zhang, The Tula uplift, northwestern China: Evidence for regional tectonism of the northern Tibetan Plateau during late Mesozoic-early Cenozoic time, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., in press. 2002.
144. Rodgers, A. J., and S. Y. Schwartz, Lithospheric structure of the Qiangtang Terrane, northern Tibetan Plateau, from complete regional waveform modeling: Evidence for partial melt, J. Geophys. Res., 103, 7137-7152, 1998.
145. Rowley, D. B., Age of initiation of collision between India and Asia: A review of stratigraphic data, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 145, 1-13, 1996.
146. Royden, L. H., B. C. Burchfiel, R. W. King, E. Wang, Z. Chen, F. Shen, and Y. Liu, Surface deformation and lower crustal flow in eastern Tibet, Science, 276, 788-790, 1997.
147. Russo, R. M., and P. G. Silver, Trench-parallel flow beneath the Nazca plate from seismic anisotropy, Science, 263, 1105-1111, 1994.
148. Sakai, H., Rifting of the Gondwanaland and uplifting of the Himalayas recorded in Mesozoic and Tertiary fluvial sediments in the Nepal Himalayas, in Sedimentary Facies in the Active Plate Margin, edited by A. Taira and F. Masuda, pp. 723-732, Terra Sci., Tokyo, Japan, 1989.
149. Schelling, D., The tectonostratigraphy and structure of the eastern Nepal Himalaya, Tectonics, 11, 925-943, 1992.
150. Schelling, D., and K. Arita, Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya, Tectonics, 10, 851-862, 1991.
151. Searle, M. P., Structural evolution and sequence of thrusting in the High Himalayan, Tibetan Tethys and Indus suture zones of Zanskar and Ladakh, western Himalaya, J. Struct. Geol., 8, 923-936, 1986.
152. Searle, M. P., R. L. Corfield, B. Stephenson, and J. McCarron, Structure of the north Indian continental margin in the Ladakh-Zanskar Himalayas: Implications for the timing of obduction of the Spontang ophiolite, India-Asia collision and deformational events in the Himalaya, Geol. Mag., 134, 297-316, 1997.
153. Seeber, L., J. G. Armbruster, and R. C. Quittmeyer, Seismicity and continental subduction in the Himalayan are, in Zagros, Hindu Kush, Himalaya: Geodynamic Evolution, Geodyn Ser., vol. 3, edited by H. K. Gupta, and F. M. Delany, pp. 215-242, AGU, Washington, D. C., 1981.
154. Sengor, A. M. C., and B. A. Natal'in, Paleotectonics of Asia: Fragments of a synthesis, in The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 486-640, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
155. Sinclair, H. D., Tectonostratigraphic model for under- filled peripheral foreland basins: An Alpine perspective, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 109, 324-346, 1997.
156. Spakman, W., Delay-time tomography of the upper mantle below Europe, the Mediterranean, and Asia Minor, Geophys. J. Int., 107, 309-332, 1991.
157. Srivastava, P., and G. Mitra, Thrust geometries and deep structure of the outer and lesser Himalaya, Kumaon and Garhwal (India): Implications for evolution of the Himalayan fold-and-thrust belt, Tectonics, 13, 89-109, 1994.
158. Steck, A., J.-L. Epard, J.-C. Vannay, J. Hunziker, M. Girard, A. Morard, and M. Robyr, Geological transect across the Tso Morari and Spiti areas: The nappe structures of the Tethys Himalaya, Eclogae Geol. Helv., 91, 103-121, 1998.
159. Stüwe, K., and T. D. Barr, On the relationship between surface uplift and gravitational extension, Tectonics, 19, 1056-1064, 2000.
160. Tapponnier, P., et al., The Tibetan side of the India- Eurasia collision, Nature, 294, 405-410, 1981.
161. Tapponnier, P., G. Peltzer, A. Y. Le Dain, and R. Armijo, Propagating extrusion tectonics in Asia: New insights from simple experiments with plasticine, Geology, 10, 611-616, 1982.
162. Tapponnier, P., B. Meyer, J. P. Avouac, G. Peltzer, Y. S. Gaudemer, H. X. Guo, K. Yin, Z. Chen, S. Cai, and H. Dai, Active thrusting and folding in the Qilian Shan, and decoupling between upper crust and mantle in northeastern Tibet, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 97, 382-403, 1990.
163. Tapponnier, P., X. Zhiqin, F. Roger, B. Meyer, N. Arnaud, G. Wittlinger, and Y. Jingsui, Oblique stepwise rise and growth of the Tibet Plateau, Science, 294, 1671-1677, 2001.
164. Tonarini, S., I. Villa, M. Oberli, F. Meier, D. A. Spencer, U. Pognante, and J. G. Ramsey, Eocene age of eclogite metamorphism in Pakistan Himalaya: Implications for India-Eurasia collision, Terra Nova, 5, 13-20, 1993.
165. Turner, S., C. J. Hawkesworth, J. Liu, N. Rogers, S. Kelley, and P. van Calsteren, Timing of Tibetan uplift constrained by analysis of volcanic rocks, Nature, 364, 50-53, 1993.
166. Valdiya, K. S., Geology of the Kumaon Lesser Himalaya, 291 pp., Wadia Inst. of Himalayan Geol., Dehra Dun, 1980.
167. Van der Voo, R., Paleomagnetism of the Atlantic, Tethys and Iapetus Ocean, 411 pp., Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1993.
168. Van der Voo, R., W. Spakman, and H. Bijwaard, Tethyan subducted slabs under India, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 171, 7-20, 1999.
169. Vannay, J.-C., and K. V. Hodges, Tectonometamorphic evolution of the Himalayan metamorphic core between Annapurna and Dhaulagiri, central Nepal, J. Meteorol. Geol., 14, 635-656, 1996.
170. Veevers, J. J., C. McA. Powell, and B. D. Johnson, Greater India's place in Gondwanaland and in Asia, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 27, 383-387, 1975.
171. Wang, Q., et al., Present-day crustal deformation in China constrained
172. Wei, W., et al., Detection of widespread fluids in the Tibetan crust by magnetotelluric studies, Science, 292, 716-718, 2001.
173. Wernicke, B., and S. R. Getty, Intracrustal subduction and gravity currents in the deep crust: Sm-Nd, Ar-Ar, and thermobarometric constraints from the Skagit Gneiss complex, Washington, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 109, 1149-1166, 1997.
174. Wesnousky, S. G., S. Kumar, R. Mohindra, and V. C. Thakur, Uplift and convergence along the Himalayan Frontal thrust of India, Tectonics, 18, 967-976, 1999.
175. Whittington, A., G. Foster, N. Harris, D. Vance, and M. Ayres, Lithostratigraphic correlations in the western Himalaya-An isotopic approach, Geology, 27, 585-588, 1999.
176. Willems, H., Z. Zhou, B. Zhang, and K.-U. Grate, Stratigraphy of the Upper Cretaceous and Lower Tertiary strata in the Tethyan Himalayas of Tibet (Tingri area, China). Geol. Rundsch., 85, 723-754, 1996.
177. Willett, S. D., and C. Beaumont, Subduction of Asian lithosphere mantle beneath Tibet inferred from models of continental collision, Nature, 369, 642-645, 1994.
178. Williams, H. S., S. Turner, S. Kelley, and N. Harris, Age and composition of dikes in southern Tibet: New constraints on the timing of east-west extension and its relationship to postcollisional volcanism, Geology, 29, 339-342, 2001.
179. Wittlinger, G., et al., Seismic tomography of Northern- Tibet and Kunlun: Evidence for crustal blocks and mantle velocity contrast, Earth Planet. Sci. Lett., 139, 263-279, 1996.
180. Xu, R. H., U. Scharer, and C. J. Allegre, Magmatism and metamorphism in the Lhasa block (Tibet): A geochronological study, J. Geol., 93, 41-57, 1985.
181. Yin, A., Mode of Cenozoic east-west extension in Tibet suggesting a common origin of rifts in Asia during the Indo-Asia collision, J. Geophys. Res., 105, 21,745-21,759, 2000.
182. Yin, A., and T. M. Harrison, Geologic evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen, Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci., 28, 211-280, 2000.
183. Yin, A., and S. Nie, A Phanerozoic palinspastic reconstruction of China and its neighboring regions, in The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 442-485, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
184. Yin, A., T. M. Harrison, M. A. Murphy, M. Grove, S. Nie, F. J. Ryerson, W. X. Feng, and C. Z. Le, Tertiary deformation history of southeastern and southwestern Tibet during the Indo-Asian collision, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 111, 1644-1664, 1999.
185. Yin, A., et al., Tectonic history of the Altyn Tagh fault system in northern Tibet inferred from Cenozoic sedimentation, Geol. Soc. Am. Bull., 114, 1257-1295, 2002.
186. Yue, Y., B. D. Ritts, and S. A. Graham, Initiation and long-term slip history of the Altyn Tagh fault, Int. Geol. Rev., 43, 1087-1093, 2001.
187. Zandt, G., S. L. Beck, and C. Chase, Similarity of Deep Structures of the High Plateaus in Tibet and the Andes: Implications for Raising Plateaus, Eos Trans. AGU, 81(48), Fall Meet. Suppl., Abstract T61D-07, 2000.
188. Zhang, K. J., Cretaceous palaeogeography of Tibet and adjacent areas (China): Tectonic implications, Cretaceous Res., 21, 23-33, 2000.
189. Zhao, W., and W. J. Morgan, Injection of Indian crust into Tibetan lower crust: A two-dimensional finite element model study, Tectonics, 6, 489-504, 1987.
190. Zhao, W., et al., Crustal structure of central Tibet as derived from project INDEPTH wide-angle seismic data, Geophys. J. Int., 145, 486-498, 2001.
191. Zhou, D., and S. A. Graham, the Songpan-Ganzi complex of the western Qinling Shan as a Triassic remnant ocean basin, in The Tectonic Evolution of Asia, edited by A. Yin and T. M. Harrison, pp. 281-299, Cambridge Univ. Press, New York, 1996.
192. Zhu, L., Broadband waveform modeling and its application to the lithospheric structure of the Tibetan Plateau, Ph.D. dissertation, 141 pp., Calif. Inst. of Technol., Pasadena, Calif., 1996.
193. Zhu, L., and D. V. Helmberger, Moho offset across the northern margin of the Tibetan plateau, Science, 281, 1170-1172, 1998.