Management of the menopause in cancer survivors

Cancer Treatment Reviews

Volumn 28, Issue 6, 2002, Pages 321-333

  Clemons, Mark ^a   Clamp, Andrew ^b   Anderson, Beverley ^b  

^a DEPARTMENT OF RADIATION ONCOLOGY   (Canada)

^b CHRISTIE HOSPITAL   (United Kingdom)

Author keywords

Cancer treatment; Menopause

Indexed keywords

ALPHA ADRENERGIC RECEPTOR STIMULATING AGENT; ALPHA TOCOPHEROL; ANTIDEPRESSANT AGENT; BELLADONNA ALKALOID; BISPHOSPHONIC ACID DERIVATIVE; CALCIUM; CLONIDINE; ERGOTAMINE; ESTRADIOL; ESTRIOL; ESTROGEN DERIVATIVE; FLUOXETINE; GESTAGEN; HYDROXYMETHYLGLUTARYL COENZYME A REDUCTASE INHIBITOR; MEDROXYPROGESTERONE ACETATE; MEGESTROL ACETATE; METHYLDOPA; PAROXETINE; PHENOBARBITAL; PHYTOESTROGEN; PROPRANOLOL; RALOXIFENE; SEROTONIN UPTAKE INHIBITOR; SERTRALINE; TAMOXIFEN; TIBOLONE; UNINDEXED DRUG; VENLAFAXINE; VITAMIN D; ZOLEDRONIC ACID;

ABDOMINAL CRAMP; APPETITE DISORDER; BEHAVIOR THERAPY; BREAST CANCER; CANCER PATIENT; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; CLINICAL TRIAL; CONSTIPATION; CONTROLLED CLINICAL TRIAL; CONTROLLED STUDY; CORONARY ARTERY ATHEROSCLEROSIS; DROWSINESS; DRUG ACTIVITY; DRUG EFFECT; DRUG EFFICACY; DRUG SAFETY; EARLY MENOPAUSE; ESTROGEN THERAPY; FEMALE; GASTROINTESTINAL SYMPTOM; HOT FLUSH; HUMAN; ISCHEMIC HEART DISEASE; LOW DRUG DOSE; MUSCLE RELAXATION; NAUSEA; ORTHOSTATIC HYPOTENSION; OSTEOPOROSIS; REVIEW; SIDE EFFECT; SLEEP DISORDER; THROMBOEMBOLISM; VAGINA BLEEDING; WEIGHT GAIN; WITHDRAWAL BLEEDING; XEROSTOMIA;

EID: 0036922719     PISSN: 03057372     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0305-7372(02)00089-0     Document Type: Review

References (143)

1. Feldman BM, Voda A, Gronseth E. The prevalence of hot flash and associated variables among perimenopausal women. Res Nurs Health 1985; 8: 261-268.
2. Bines J, Oleske DM, Cobleigh MA. Ovarian function in premenopausal women treated with adjuvant chemotherapy for breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1996; 14: 1718-1729.
3. Goodwin PJ, Ennis M, Pritchard KI, Trudeau M, Hood N. Risk of menopause during the first year after breast cancer diagnosis. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 2365-2370.
4. Clark ST, Radford JA, Crowther D, Swindell R, Shalet SM. Gonadal function following chemotherapy for Hodgkins disease: a comparative study of MVPP and a seven-drug hybrid regimen. J Clin Oncol 1995; 13: 134-139.
5. Byrne J, Fears TR, Gail MH, Pee D, Connelly RR, Austin DF, Holmes GF, Holmes FF, Latourette HB, Meigs JW. Early menopause in long-term survivors of cancer during adolescence. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 166: 788-793.
6. Hopwood P. Living with advanced breast cancer: development and application of a clinical checklist for patients on endocrine therapy. The Breast 1998; 7: 14-21.
7. Kronenberg F. Hot flashes: phenomenology, quality of life, and search for treatment options. Exp Gerontol 1994; 29: 319-336.
8. Bachman GA. Vasomotor flushes in menopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180: S312-S316.
9. Lamb MA. Effects of cancer on the sexuality and fertility of women. Semin Oncol Nurs 1995; 11: 120-127.
10. Finck G, Barton DL, Loprinzi CL, Quella SK, Sloan JA. Definitions of hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. J Pain Symptom Manage 1998; 16: 327-333.
11. Nesheim BI, Saetre T. Reduction of menopausal hot flushes by methyldopa. A double blind crossover trial. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 1981; 20: 413-416.
12. Casper RF, Yen SS. Neuroendocrinology of menopausal flushes: an hypothesis of flush mechanism. Clin Endocrinol 1985; 22: 293-312.
13. Bider D, Mashiach S, Serr DM, Ben-Rafael Z. Endocrinological basis of hot flushes. Obstet Gynecol Surv 1989; 44: 495499.
14. McKinlay SM, Jefferys M. The menopausal syndrome. Br J Prev Soc Med 1974; 28: 108-115.
15. Daly E, Gray A, Barlow D, McPherson K, Roche M, Vessey M. Measuring the impact of menopausal symptoms on quality of life. BMJ 1993; 307: 836-840.
16. Ganz PA, Rowland JH, Meyerowitz BE, Desmond KA. Impact of different adjuvant therapy strategies on quality of life in breast cancer survivors. Recent Results Cancer Res 1998; 152: 396-411.
17. Couzi RJ, Helzlsouer KJ, Fetting JH. Prevalence of menopausal symptoms among women with a history of breast cancer and attitudes toward estrogen replacement therapy. J Clin Oncol 1995; 13: 2737-2744.
18. Meyerowitz BE, Desmond KA, Rowland JH, Wyatt GE, Ganz PA. Sexuality following breast cancer. J Sex Marital Ther 1999; 25:237-250.
19. Carpenter JS. Hot flashes and their management in breast cancer. Semin Oncol Nurs 2000; 16: 214-225.
20. Taylor CW, Green S, Dalton WS, Martino S, Rector D, Ingle JN, Robert NJ, Budd GT, Paradelo JC, Natale RB, Bearden JD, Mailliard JA, Osborne CK. Multicenter randomized clinical trial of goserelin versus surgical ovariectomy in premenopausal patients with receptor-positive metastatic breast cancer: an intergroup study. J Clin Oncol 1998; 16: 994-999.
21. Stein KD, Jacobsen PB, Hann DM, Greenberg H, Lyman G. Impact of hot flashes on quality of life among postmenopausal women being treated for breast cancer. J Pain Symptom Manage 2000; 19: 436-445.
22. Fisher B, Costantino J, Redmond C, Poisson R, Bowman D, Couture J, Dimitrov NV, Wolmark N, Wickerham DL, Fisher ER, et al. A randomized clinical trial evaluating tamoxifen in the treatment of patients with node-negative breast cancer who have estrogen-receptor-positive tumors. N Engl J Med 1989; 320: 479-484.
23. Love RR, Camern L, Connell BL, et al. Symptoms associated with tamoxifen treatment in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1991; 151: 1842-1847.
24. Loprinzi CL, Zahasky KM, Sloan JA, et al. Tamoxifen-induced hot flashes. Clin Breast Cancer 2000; 1: 52-56.
25. Bergmans MG, Merkus JM, Corbey RS, Schellekens LA, Ubachs JM. Effect of Bellergal Retard on climacteric complaints: a double-blind, placebo-controlled study. Maturitas 1987; 9: 227-234.
26. Ganz PA, Greendale GA, Petersen L, Zibecchi L, Kahn B, Belin TR. Managing menopausal symptoms in breast cancer survivors: results of a randomized controlled trial. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1054-1064.
27. Germaine LM, Freedman RR. Behavioral treatment of menopausal hot flashes: evaluation by objective methods. J Consult Clin Psychol 1984; 52: 1072-1079.
28. Freedman RR, Woodward S. Behavioral treatment of menopausal hot flushes: evaluation by ambulatory monitoring. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1992; 167: 436-439.
29. Irvin JH, Domar AD, Clark C, Zuttermeister PC, Friedman R. The effects of relaxation response training on menopausal symptoms. J Psycho Obstet Gynecol 1996; 17: 202-207.
30. Towlerton G, Filshie J, O'Brien M, Duncan A. Acupuncture in the control of vasomotor symptoms caused by tamoxifen. Palliat Med 1999; 13: 445.
31. Fantl JA, Cardozo L, McClish DK. Estrogen therapy in the management of urinary incontinence in postmenopausal women: a meta-analysis. First report of the Hormones and Urogenital Therapy Committee. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83: 12-18.
32. Clemons M, Goss P. Estrogen and the risk of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2001; 344: 276-285.
33. Ganz PA, Greendale GA, Kahn B, O'Leary JF, Desmond KA. Are older breast carcinoma survivors willing to take hormone replacement therapy? Cancer 1999; 86: 814-820.
34. Baum M. Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer. Lancet 1994; 343: 53.
35. Baum M. The control of acute menopausal symptoms in breast cancer survivors. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 9.
36. Eden JA, Bush T, Nand S. A case-control study of combined continuous oestrogen-progestin replacement therapy among women with a personal history of breast cancer. Menopause 1995; 2: 67-72.
37. Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Asmar L, Hortobagyi GN, Klein MJ, McNeese M, Singletary SE, Thierault RL. Oestrogen replacement therapy after localized breast cancer: clinical outcome of 319 women followed prospectively. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 1482-1487.
38. Loprinzi CL, Barton D. Oestrogen deficiency: in search of symptom control and sexuality. J Natl Cancer Inst 2000; 92: 1028-1029.
39. O'Meara ES, Rossing MA, Daling JR, Elmore JG, Barlow WE, Weiss NS. Hormone replacement therapy after a diagnosis of breast cancer in relation to recurrence and mortality. J Natl Cancer Inst 2001; 93: 754-762.
40. Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Zolinski C. Estrogen replacement therapy in women with breast cancer: a survey of patient attitudes. Am J Med Sci 1992; 304: 145-149.
41. Swain S, Santen R, Burger H, Pritchard K. Treatment of estrogen deficiency symptoms in women surviving breast cancer. Part 6: Executive summary and consensus statement. Proceedings of a conference held at the Boar's Head Inn, Charlottesville, Virginia. September 21-23, 1997. Oncology 1999; 13: 1-8.
42. Vassilopoulou-Sellin R, Theriault RL. Randomized prospective trial of estrogen-replacement therapy in women with a history of breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst Monogr 1994; 16: 153-159.
43. Marsden J, Whitehead M, A'Hern R, Baum M, Sacks N. Are randomized trials of hormone replacement therapy in symptomatic women with breast cancer feasible? Fertil Steril 2000; 73: 292-299.
44. Pritchard KI, Khan H, Levine M. Clinical Practice Guidelines for the care and treatment of breast cancer: 14 The role of hormone replacement therapy in women with a previous diagnosis of breast cancer. CMAJ 2002; 166: 1017-1022.
45. Erlik Y, Meldrum DR, Lagasse LD, Judd HL. Effect of megestrol acetate on flushing and bone metabolism in post-menopausal women. Maturitas 1981; 3:167-172.
46. Albrecht BH, Schiff I, Tulchinsky D, Ryan KJ. Objective evidence that placebo and oral medroxyprogesterone acetate therapy diminish menopausal vasomotor flushes. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1981; 139: 631-635.
47. Quella SK, Loprinzi CL, Sloan JA, Vaught NL, DeKrey WL, Fischer T, Finck G, Pierson N, Pisansky T. Long term use of megestrol acetate by cancer survivors for the treatment of hot flashes. Cancer 1998; 82: 1784-1788.
48. Loprinzi CL, Michalak JC, Quella SK, O'Fallon JR, Hatfield AK, Nelimark RA, Dose AM, Fischer T, Johnson C, Klatt NE, et al. Megestrol acetate for the prevention of hot flashes. N Engl J Med.1994; 331: 347-352.
49. Bullock JL, Massey FM, Gambrell Jr. RD. Use of medroxyprogesterone acetate to prevent menopausal symptoms. Obstet Gynecol 1975; 46: 165-168.
50. Bertelli G, Venturini M, DelMastro L, et al. Depot intramuscular medroxyprogesterone acetate (MAP) vs oral megesterol acetate (MA) for the treatment of hot flashes in breast cancer survivors: results of GONO (Gruppo Oncologico Nord Ovest) MIG-4 phase III trial. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1999; 18, abstr 592.
51. Kloosterboer HJ. Tibolone: a steroid with a tissue-specific mode of action. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2001; 76: 231-238.
52. Rymer J, Morris EP. Menopausal symptoms. BMJ 2001; 321: 1516-1519.
53. Roux C, Pelissier C, Fechtenbaum J, Loiseau-Peres S, Benhamou CL. Randomized double-masked, 2-year comparison of tibolone with 17β-estradiol and norethindrone acetate in preventing postmenopausal bone loss. Osteoporos Int 2002; 13: 241-248.
54. Gallagher JC, Baylink DJ, Freeman R, McClung M. Prevention of bone loss with tibolone in postmenopausal women: results of two randomised, double-blind, placebo-controlled, dose-finding studies. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 2001; 86: 4717-4726.
55. Lippert C, Seeger H, Wallwiener D, Mueck AO. Tibolone versus 17β-estradiol/norethisterone: effects on the proliferation of human breast cancer cells. Eur J Gynecol Oncol 2002; 23: 127-130.
56. Kloosterboer HJ, Schoonen WGEJ, Deckers GH, Klijn JGM. Effect of progestagens and Org OD14 in in vitro and in vivo tumor models. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 1994; 49: 311-318.
57. Colacurci N, Mele D, De Franciscis P, Costa V, Fortunato N, De Seta D. Effects of tibolone on the breast. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1998; 80: 235-238.
58. Lundstrom E, Christow A, Kersemaekers W, Sbane G, Azavedo E, Solderqvist G, Mol-Arts M, Barkfeldt J, von Schoultz B. Effects of tibolone and continuous combined hormone replacement therapy on mammographic breast density. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2002; 186: 717-722.
59. Pansini F, Albertazzi P, Bonaccorsi G, Zanotti L, Porto S, Dossi L, Campobasso C, Mollica G. Trazodone: a non-hormonal alternative for neurovegetative climacteric symptoms. Clin Exp Obstet Gynecol 1995; 22: 341-344.
60. Stearns V, Isaacs C, Rowland J, Crawford J, Ellis MJ, Kramer R, Lawrence W, Hanfelt JJ, Hayes DF. A pilot trial assessing the efficacy of paroxetine hydrochloride (Paxil) in controlling hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. Ann Oncol 2000; 11: 17-22.
61. Plouffe Jr. L, Trott EA, Largoza M, Hansen KA. An open trial of sertraline for menopausal hot flushes: potential involvement of serotonin in vasomotor instability. Del Med J 1997; 69: 481-482.
62. Roth AJ, Scher HI. Sertraline relieves hot flashes secondary to medical castration as treatment of advanced prostate cancer. Psychooncology 1998; 7: 129-132.
63. Loprinzi CL, Sloan JA, Perez EA, Quella SK, Stella PJ, Mailliard JA, Halyard MY, Pruthi S, Novotny PJ, Rummans TA. Phase III evaluation of fluoxetine for treatment of hot flashes. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 1578-1583.
64. Quella SK, Loprinzi CL, Sloan J, Novotny P, Perez EA, Burch PA, Antolak Jr. SJ, Pisansky TM. Pilot evaluation of venlafaxine for the treatment of hot flashes in men undergoing androgen ablation therapy for prostate cancer. J Urol 1999; 162: 98-102.
65. Loprinzi CL, Kugler JW, Sloan JA, Mailliard JA, LaVasseur BI, Barton DL, Novotny PJ, Dakhil SR, Rodger K, Rummans TA, Christensen BJ. Venlafaxine in management of hot flashes in survivors of breast cancer: a randomised controlled trial. Lancet 2000; 356: 2059-2063.
66. Clayden JR, Bell JW, Pollard P. Menopausal flushing: double-blind trial of a non-hormonal medication. Br Med J 1974; 1: 409-412.
67. Edington RF, Chagnon JP, Steinberg WM. Clonidine (Dixarit) for menopausal flushing. Can Med Assoc J 1980; 123: 23-26.
68. Laufer LR, Erlik Y, Meldrum DR, Judd HL. Effect of clonidine on hot flashes in postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1982; 60: 583-586.
69. Wren BG, Brown LB. A double-blind trial with clonidine and a placebo to treat hot flushes. Med J Aust 1986; 144: 369-370.
70. Loprinzi CL, Goldberg RM, O'Fallon JR, Quella SK, Misek AW, Mynderse LA, Brown LD, Tschetter LK, Wilwerding MB, Dose M. Transdermal clonidine for ameliorating postorchiectomy hot flashes. J Urol 1993; 151: 634-636.
71. Goldberg RM, Loprinzi CL, O'Fallon JR, Veeder MH, Miser AW, Mailliard JA, Michalak JC, Dose AM, Rowland Jr. KM, Burnham NL. Transdermal clonidine for ameliorating tamoxifen-induced hot flashes. J Clin Oncol 1994; 12:155-158.
72. Pandya KJ, Loughner J, Raubertas R, Bennett JM. A double blind placebo controlled trial of clonidine for vasomotor symptoms in breast cancer patients on tamoxifen. Proc Am Soc Clin Oncol 1990; 9: 340.
73. Pandya KJ, Raubertas RF, Flynn PJ, Hynes HE, Rosenbluth RJ, Kirshner JJ, Pierce HI, Dragalin V, Morrow GR. Oral clonidine in postmenopausal patients with breast cancer experiencing tamoxifen-induced hot flashes: a University of Rochester Cancer Center Community Clinical Oncology Program study. Ann Intern Med 2000; 132: 788-793.
74. Oddens BJ. The climacteric cross-culturally: the International Health Foundation South-east Asia study. Maturitas 1994; 19: 155-156.
75. Tham DM, Gardner CD, Haskell WL. Clinical review 97: potential health benefits of dietary phytoestrogens: a review of the clinical, epidemiological, and mechanistic evidence. Clin Endocrinol Metab 1998; 83: 2223-2235.
76. Murkies AL, Lombard C, Strauss BJ, Wilcox G, Burger HG, Morton MS. Dietary flour supplementation decreases postmenopausal hot flushes: effect of soy and wheat. Maturitas 1995; 21: 189-195.
77. Murkies AL, Teede HJ, Davis SR. What is the role of phytoestrogens in treating menopausal symptoms? Med Aust 2000; 173: S97-S98.
78. Albertazzi P, Pansini F, Bonaccorsi G, Zanotti L, Forini E, De Aloysio D. The effect of dietary soy supplementation on hot flushes. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 6-11.
79. Upmalis DH, Rogerio L, Bradley L, Warren M, Cone FL, Lamia CA. Vasomotor symptom relief by soy isoflavone extract tablets in postmenopausal women: a multicenter, double-blind, randomised, placebo-controlled study. Menopause 2000; 7: 236-242.
80. Consensus Opinion from The Board of Trustees of NAMS. The role of isoflavones in menopausal health: consensus opinion of the North American Menopause Society. Menopause 2000; 7: 215-229.
81. Fugh-Berman A, Kronenberg F. Red clover (Trifolium pratense) for menopausal women: current state of knowledge. Menopause 2001; 8: 333-337.
82. Clifton-Bligh PB, Baber RJ, Fulcher GR, Nery ML, Moreton T. The effect of isoflavones extracted from red clover (Rimostil) on lipid and bone metabolism. Menopause 2001; 8: 259-265.
83. Van Patten CVL, Olivotto IA, Chambers K, Gelman KA, Hislop G, Templeton E, Wattie A, Prior JC. Effect of soy phytoestrogen on hot flashes in postmenopausal women with breast cancer: a randomized controlled clinical trial. J Clin Oncol 2002; 20: 1449-1455.
84. Ginsburg J, Prelevic GM. Lack of significant hormonal effects and controlled trials of phyto-estrogens. Lancet 2000; 355: 163-164.
85. Hale GE, Hughes CL, Robboy SJ, Agarwal SK, Bievre M. A double-blind randomized study on the effects of red clover isoflavones on the endometrium. Menopause 2001; 8: 338-346.
86. Christy C. Vitamin E in menopause. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1945; 50: 84-87.
87. Finkler RS. The effect of vitamin E in the menopause. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1949; 9: 89-94.
88. McLaren H. Vitamin E in menopause. BMJ 1949;2:1378-1381.
89. Fisher B, Costantino JP, Wickerham DL, Redmond CK, Kavanah M, Cronin WM, Vogel V, Robidoux A, Dimitrov N, Atkins J, Daly M, Wieand S, Tan-Chiu E, Ford L, Wolmark N. Tamoxifen for prevention of breast cancer: report of the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 1371-1388.
90. Barton DL, Loprinzi CL, Quella SK, Sloan JA, Veeder MH, Egner JR, Fidler P, Stella PJ, Swan DK, Vaught NL, Novotny P. Prospective evaluation of vitamin E for hot flashes in breast cancer survivors. J Clin Oncol 1998; 16: 495-500.
91. Coope J, Williams S, Patterson JS. A study of the effectiveness of propranolol in menopausal hot flushes. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1978; 85: 472-475.
92. Chenoy R, Hussain S, Tayob Y, O'Brien PM, Moss MY, Morse PF. Effect of oral gamolenic acid from evening primrose oil on menopausal flushing. BMJ 1994; 308: 501-503.
93. Jacobson JS, Troxel AB, Evans J, Klaus L, Vahdat L, Kinne D, Lo KM, Moore A, Rosenman PJ, Kaufman EL, Neugut AI, Grann VR. Randomized trial of black cohosh for the treatment of hot flashes among women with a history of breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 2001; 19: 2739-2745.
94. Hammon MG, Hatley L, Talbert LM. A double blind study to evaluate the effect of methyldopa on menopausal vasomotor flushes. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1984; 58: 1158-1160.
95. Andersen O, Engebretsen T, Solberg VM, Orbo A. α-Methyldopa for climacteric hot flushes. A double-blind, randomized, cross-over study. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1986; 65: 405-409.
96. Lebherz TB, French L. Nonhormonal treatment of the menopausal syndrome. Gynecology 1969; 33: 795-799.
97. Guttuso T. Gabapentin's effects on hot flashes and hypothermia. Neurology 2000; 54: 2161-2163.
98. Loprinzi CL, Barton DL, Rhodes D. Management of hot flashes in breast-cancer survivors. Lancet Oncol 2001; 2: 199-204.
99. Bachmann GA. The clinical platform for the 17β-estradiol vaginal releasing ring. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1998; 178: S257-S260.
100. Day R, Ganz PA, Costantino JP, Cronin WM, Wickerham DL, Fisher B. Health-related quality of life and tamoxifen in breast cancer prevention: a report from the National Surgical Adjuvant Breast and Bowel Project P-1 Study. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 2659-2669.
101. Nachtigall LE. Comparative study: Replens versus local estrogen in menopausal women. Fertil Steril 1994; 61:178-180.
102. Loprinzi CL, Abu-Ghazaleh S, Sloan JA, vanHaelst-Pisani C, Hammer AM, Rowland Jr KM, Law M, Windschitl HE, Kaur JS, Ellison N. Phase III randomized double-blind study to evaluate the efficacy of a polycarbophil-based vaginal moisturizer in women with breast cancer. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 969-973.
103. Eriksen B. A randomized, open, parallel-group study on the preventive effect of an estradiol-releasing vaginal ring (Estring) on recurrent urinary tract infections in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1999; 180: 1072-1079.
104. Lose G, Englev E. Oestradiol-releasing vaginal ring versus oestriol vaginal pessaries in the treatment of bothersome lower urinary tract symptoms. Br J Obst Gynecol 2000; 107: 1029-1034.
105. Barentsen R, van de Weijer PH, Schram JH. Continuous low dose estradiol released from a vaginal ring versus estriol vaginal cream for urogenital atrophy. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1997; 71: 73-80.
106. Gabrielsson J, Wallenbeck I, Birgerson L. Pharmacokinetic data on estradiol in light of the estring concept. Estradiol and estring pharmacokinetics. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand Suppl 1996; 163: 26-31.
107. Ramsay LE, Williams B, Johnston GD, MacGregor GA, Poston L, Potter JF, Poulter NR, Russell G. British Hypertension Society guidelines for hypertension management 1999: summary. BMJ 1999; 319: 630-635.
108. Shepherd J, Cobbe SM, Ford I, Isles CG, Lorimer AR, MacFarlane PW, McKillop JH, Packard CJ. Prevention of coronary heart disease with pravastatin in men with hypercholesterolemia. NEJM 1995; 333: 1301-1307.
109. The LIPID group. Prevention of cardiovascular events and death with pravastatin in patients with coronary heart disease and a broad range of initial cholesterol. NEJM 1998;339:1349-1357.
110. Darling GM, Jowns JA, McCloud PI, Davis SR. Estrogen and progestin compared with simvastatin for hypercholesterolemia in postmenopausal women. NEJM 1997; 337: 595-601.
111. Davidson MH, Testolin LM, Maki KC, von Duillard S, Drennan KB. A comparison of estrogen replacement, pravastatin and combined treatment for the management of hypercholesterolemia in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1997; 157: 1186-1192.
112. Hulley S, Grady D, Bush T, Furberg C, Herrington D, Riggs B, Vittinghoff E. Randomized trial of estrogen plus progestin for secondary prevention of coronary heart disease in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1998; 280: 605-613.
113. Mosea L, Collins P, Herrington DM, Mendelsohn ME, Pasternak RC, Robertson RM, Schenk-Gustafsson K, Smith SC, Taubert KA, Wenger NK. Hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: a statement for healthcare professionals from the American Heart Association. Circulation 2001; 104: 499-503.
114. Womens Health Initiative Investigators Writing Group. Risks and benefits of estrogen and progestin in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 2002; 288: 321-333.
115. Bilimoria MM, Jordan VC, Morrow M. Additional benefits of tamoxifen for postmenopausal patients. In: Jordan VC (ed.), Tamoxifen: a guide for clinicians and patients. PRR: Huntington, NY, 1996; 75-89.
116. Osborne CK. Tamoxifen in the treatment of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 1998; 339: 1609-1618.
117. Love RR, Wiebe DA, Feyzi JM, Newcomb PA, Chappell RJ. Effects of tamoxifen on cardiovascular risk factors in postmenopausal women. J Natl Cancer Inst 1996; 86: 1534-1539.
118. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group. Tamoxifen for early breast cancer: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 1998; 351: 1451-1467.
119. Chlebowski RT, Collyar DE, Somerfield MR, Pfister DG. American Society of Clinical Oncology technology assessment of breast cancer risk reduction strategies: tamoxifen and raloxifene. J Clin Oncol 1999; 17: 1939-1955.
120. Delmas PD, Bjarnason NH, Mitlak BH, Ravoux AC, Shah AS, Huster WJ, Draper M, Christiassen C. Effects of raloxifeneon bone mineral density, serum cholesterol concentrations, and uterine endometrium in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:1641-1647.
121. Khovidhunkit W, Shoback DM. Clinical effects of raloxifene hydrochloride in women. Ann Intern Med 1999; 130: 431-439.
122. Walsh BW, Kuller LH, Wild RA, Paul S, Farmer M, Lawrence JB, Shah AS, Anderson PW. Effects of raloxifene on serum lipids and coagulation factors in healthy postmenopausal women. JAMA 1998; 279:1445-1451.
123. Jordan VC, Morrow M. Raloxifene as a multifunctional medicine? Current trials will show whether it is effective in both osteoporosis and breast cancer. BMJ 1999; 319: 331-332.
124. Barrett-Connor E, Grady D, Sashegyi A, Andreson PW, Cox DA, Hoszowski K, Rautaharju P, Harper KD. Raloxifene and cardiovascular events in osteoporotic postmenopausal women: four year results from the MORE (Multiple Outcomes of Raloxifene) randomized trial. JAMA 2002; 287:847-857.
125. Saarto T, Blomqvist C, Valimaki M, Makela P, Sarna S, Elomaa I. Chemical castration induced by adjuvant cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, and fluorouracil chemotherapy causes rapid bone loss that is reduced by clodronate: a randomized study in premenopausal breast cancer patients. J Clin Oncol 1997; 15: 1341-1347.
126. Burstein HJ, Winer EP. Primary care for survivors of breast cancer. N Engl J Med 2000; 343: 1086-1094.
127. Dawson-Hughes B, Harris SS, Krall EA, Dallal GE. Effect of calcium and vitamin D supplementation on bone density in men and women 65 years of age or older. N Engl J Med 1997; 337:670-676.
128. Lufkin EG, Wahner HW, O'Fallon WM, Hodgson SF, Kotowicz MA, Lane AW, Judd HL, Caplan RH, Riggs BL. Treatment of postmenopausal osteoporosis with transdermal estrogen. Ann Intern Med 1992; 117: 1-9.
129. Schneider DI, Barrett-Connor EL, Morton DJ. Timing of postmenopausal estrogen for optimal bone mineral density. The Rancho Bernando Study. JAMA 1997; 277: 543-547.
130. Hosking D, Chilvers CE, Christiansen C, Ravn P, Wasnich R, Ross P. Prevention of bone loss with alendronate in postmenopausal women under 60 years of age - Early Postmenopausal Intervention Cohort Study Group. N Engl J Med 1998; 338: 485-492.
131. Powles TJ, McCloskey E, Paterson AH, Ashley S, Tidy VA, Nevantaus A, Rosenqvist K, Kanis J. Oral clodronate and reduction in loss of bone mineral density in women with operable primary breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst 1998; 90: 704-708.
132. Reid IR, Brown JP, Burckhardt P, Horowitz Z, Richardson P, Trechsel U, Widmer A, Devogelaer J-P, Kaufman J-M, Jaeger P, Body J-J, Meunier PJ. Intravenous zoledronic acid in postmenopausal women with low bone mineral density. N Engl J Med 2002; 346: 653-661.
133. Love RR, Mazess RB, Tormey DC, Barden HS, Newcomb PA, Jordan VC. Bone mineral density in women with breast cancer treated with adjuvant tamoxifen for at least two years. Breast Cancer Res Treat 1988; 12: 297-302.
134. Powles TJ, Hickish T, Kanis JA, Tidy A, Ashley S. Effect of tamoxifen on bone mineral density measured by dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry in healthy premenopausal and postmenopausal women. J Clin Oncol 1996; 14: 78-84.
135. Ettinger B, Black DM, Mitlak BH, Knickerbocker RK, Nickelsen T, Genant HK, Christiansen C, Delmas PD, Zanchetta JR, Stakkestad J, Gluer CC, Krueger K, Cohen FJ, Eckert S, Ensrud KE, Avioli LV, Lips P, Cummings SR. Reduction of vertebral fracture risk in postmenopausal women with osteoporosis treated with raloxifene. JAMA 1999; 282: 637-645.
136. Resnick SM, Metter EJ, Zonderman AB. Estrogen replacement therapy and longitudinal decline in visual memory.A possible protective effect? Neurology 1997; 49: 1491-1497.
137. Matthews K, Cauley J, Yaffe K, Zmuda JM. Estrogen replacement therapy and cognitive decline in older community women. J Am Geriatr Soc 2000; 48: 345-346.
138. Polo-Kantola P, Portin R, Polo O, Helenius H, Irjala K, Erkkola R. The effect of short-term estrogen replacement therapy on cognition: A randomized double-blind, crossover trial in postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1998; 91: 459-466.
139. Sherwin BB. Estrogen and/or androgen replacement therapy and cognitive functioning in surgically menopausal women. Psychoneuroendocrinol 1988; 13: 345-347.
140. Kampen DL, Sherwin BB. Estrogen use and verbal memory in healthy postmenopausal women. Obstet Gynecol 1994; 83: 979-983.
141. Yaffe K, Krueger K, Sarkar S, Grady D, Barrett-Connor E, Cox DA, Nickelsen T. Cognitive function in postmenopausal women treated with raloxifene. N Engl J Med 2001; 344:1207-1213.
142. Radford JA, Lieberman BA, Brison DR, Smith AR, Critchlow JD, Ryssell SA, Watson AJ, Clayton JA, Harris M, Gosden RG, Shalet SM. Othotopic reimplantation of cryopreserved ovarian cortical strips after high-dose chemotherapy for Hodgkins lymphoma. Lancet 2001; 357: 1172-1175.
143. Oktay K, Economos K, Kan M, Rucinski J, Veeck L, Rosenwaks Z. Endocrine function and oocyte retrieval after autologous transplantation of ovarian cortical strips to the forearm. JAMA 2001; 286: 1490-1493.