Potential health benefits of dietary phytoestrogens: A review of the clinical, epidemiological, and mechanistic evidence

Journal of Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism

Volumn 83, Issue 7, 1998, Pages 2223-2235

  Tham, Doris M ^a   Gardner, Christopher D ^a   Haskell, William L ^a  

^a STANFORD UNIVERSITY SCHOOL OF MEDICINE   (United States)

Author keywords

[No Author keywords available]

Indexed keywords

ANDROGEN; DIETHYLSTILBESTROL; ESTROGEN; GENISTEIN; IPRIFLAVONE; ISOFLAVONE; LIGNAN; PHYTOESTROGEN; SEX HORMONE; TAMOXIFEN; VEGETABLE PROTEIN; ISOFLAVONE DERIVATIVE;

DIET; FOOD INTAKE; HEART DISEASE; MENOPAUSE; MENSTRUAL CYCLE; OSTEOPOROSIS; PRIORITY JOURNAL; REVIEW; VEGETABLE; CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASE; FEMALE; HUMAN; MALE; NEOPLASM; PLANT;

CARDIOVASCULAR DISEASES; DIET; ESTROGENS, NON-STEROIDAL; FEMALE; HUMANS; ISOFLAVONES; LIGNANS; MALE; NEOPLASMS; OSTEOPOROSIS; PLANTS, EDIBLE;

EID: 0032116898     PISSN: 0021972X     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1210/jc.83.7.2223     Document Type: Review

References (120)

1. National Research Council. 1989 Evidence on dietary components and chronic diseases. In: Commission on Life Sciences, Food and Nutrition Board, Committee on Diet and Health, eds. Diet and health: implications for reducing chronic disease risk. Washington DC: National Academy Press; 139-528.
2. Zava DT, Duwe G. 1997 Estrogenic and antiproliferative properties and other flavonoids in human breast cancer cells in vivo. Nutr Cancer. 27:31-40.
3. Adlercreutz H, Mazur W. 1997 Phyto-oestrogens and western diseases. Ann Med. 29:95-120.
4. Knight DC, Eden JA. 1996 A review of the clinical effects of phytoestrogens. Obstet Gynecol. 87:897-904.
5. Miksicek RJ. 1994 Interactions of naturally occurring nonsteroidal estrogens with expressed recombinant human estrogen receptor. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 49:153-160.
6. Santell RC, Cheng YC, Nair MG, et al. 1997 Dietary genistein exerts estrogenic effects upon the uterus, mammary gland and the hypothalmic/pituitary axis in rats. J Nutr. 127:263-269.
7. Adlercreutz H, Markkanen H, Watanabe S. 1993 Plasma concentrations of phyto-oestrogens in Japanese men. Lancet. 342:1209-1210.
8. Adlercreutz H, Fotsis T, Heikkinen R, et al. 1982 Excretion of the lignans enterolactone and enterodiol and of equol in omnivorous and vegetarian postmenopausal women and in women with breast cancer. Lancet. 2:1295-1299.
9. Adlercreutz H, Fotsis T, Bannwart C, et al. 1986 Urinary estrogen profile determination in young Finnish vegetarian and omnivorous women. J Steroid Biochem. 24:289-296.
10. Martinex-Campos A, Amara J, Dannies P. 1986 Antiestrogens are partial estrogen agonists for prolactin production in primary pituitary cultures. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 48:127-133.
11. Martin PM, Horwitz KB, Ruyan DS, et al. 1978 Phytoestrogen interaction with estrogen receptors in human breast cancer cells. Endocrinology. 103:1860-1867.
12. Martucci CP, Fishman J. 1993 P450 enzymes of estrogen metabolism. Pharmacol Ther. 57:237-257.
13. Scarlata S, Miksicek R. 1995 Binding properties of coumestrol to expressed human estrogen receptor. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 115:65-72.
14. Daux WL, Griffin JF. 1985 Structure-activity relationships of estrogenic chemicals. In: McLachlin JA, ed. Estrogens in the environment. New York: Elsevier; 15-23.
15. Adlercreutz H, Hockerstedt K, Bannwart C, et al. 1987 Effect of dietary components, including lignans and phytoestrogens, on enterohepatic circulation and liver metabolism of estrogens and on sex hormone binding globulin (SHBG). J Steroid Biochem. 27:1135-1144.
16. Reinli K, Block G. 1996 Phytoestrogen content of foods-a compendium of literature values. Nutr Cancer. 26:123-148.
17. Wang H, Murphy PA. 1994 Isoflavone composition of American and Japanese soybeans in Iowa: effects of variety, crop year, and location. J Agric Food Chem. 42:1674-1677.
18. Wang H, Murphy PA. 1994 Isoflavone content in commercial soybean foods. J Agric Food Chem. 42:1666-1673.
19. Franke AA, Custer LJ. 1996 Daidzein and genistein concentration in human milk after soy consumption. Clin Chem. 42:955-964.
20. Dwyer JT, Goldin BR, Saul N, Gualtieiri L, Barakat S, Adlercreutz H. 1994 Tofu and soy drinks contain phytoestrogens. J Am Diet Assoc. 94:739-743.
21. Hutchins AM, Lampe JW, Martini MC, Campbell DR, Slavin JL. 1995 Vegetables, fruits, and legumes: effect on urinary isoflavonoid phytoestrogen and lignan excretion. J Am Diet Assoc. 95:769-774.
22. Adlercreutz H, Hockerstedt K, Bannwart C, et al. 1988 Associations between dietary fiber, urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonic phytoestrogens, and plasma non-protein bound sex hormones in relation to breast cancer. In: Bresciani F, King RJB, Lippman ME, Raynaud J-P, eds. Progress in cancer research and therapy: hormones and cancer. New York: Raven Press; vol 3:409-412.
23. Xu X, Harris KS, Wang HJ, Murphy PA, Hendrich S. 1995 Bioavailability of soybean isoflavones depends upon gut microflora in women. J Nutr. 125:307-315.
24. Setchell KDR, Borriello SP, Hulme P, Kirk DN, Axelson M. 1984 Nonsteroidal estrogens of dietary origin: possible roles in hormone-dependent disease. Am J Clin Nutr. 40:569-578.
25. Lu LH, Anderson KE, Grady JJ, Nagamani M. 1996 Effects of soya consumption for one month on steroid hormones in premenopausal women: implications for breast cancer risk reduction. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 5:63-70.
26. Lu LJ, Grady JJ, Marshall MV, Ramanujam VM, Anderson KE. 1995 Altered time course of urinary daidzein and genistein excretion during chronic soya diet in healthy male subjects. Nutr Cancer. 24:311-323.
27. Kelly GE, Joannou GE, Reeder AY, Nelson C, Waring MA. 1995 The variable metabolic response to dietary isoflavones in humans. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 208:40-43.
28. Thompson LU, Robb P, Serraino M, Cheung F. 1991 Mammalian lignan production from various foods. Nutr Cancer. 16:43-52.
29. Kirkman LM, Lampe JW, Campbell DR, Martini MC, Slavin JL. 1995 Urinary lignan and isoflavonoid excretion in men and women consuming vegetable and soy diets. Nutr Cancer. 24:1-12.
30. Lusas EW, Riaz MN. 1995 Soy protein products: processing and use. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):573S-580S.
31. Messina M. 1995 Modern applications for an ancient bean: soybeans and the prevention and treatment of chronic disease. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):567S-569S.
32. Golbitz P. 1995 Traditional soyfbods: processing and products. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):570S-572S.
33. Anderson RL, Wolf WJ. 1995 Compositional changes in trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, saponins and isoflavones related to soybean processing. J Nutr. 125:(Suppl):581S-588S.
34. Barnes S, Peterson TG, Coward L. 1995 Rationale for the use of genistein-containing soy matrices in chemoprevention trials for breast and prostate cancer. J Cell Biochem. 22:181-187.
35. Adlercreutz H, Goldin BR, Gorbach SL, et al. 1995 Soybean phytoestrogen intake and cancer risk. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):757S-770S.
36. Artaud-Wild SM, Connor SL, Sexton G, Connor WE. 1993 Differences in coronary mortality can be explained by differences in cholesterol and saturated fat intakes in 40 countries but not in France and Finland. A paradox. Circulation. 88:2771-2779.
37. Keys A, Menotti A, Aravanis C, et al. 1984 The seven countries study: 2,289 deaths in 15 years. Prev Med. 13:141-154.
38. Chae CU, Ridker PM, Manson JE. 1997 Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease. Thromb Haemost. 78:770-780.
39. Stampfer MJ, Colditz GA, Willett WC, et al. 1991 Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease. Ten-year follow-up from the Nurses Health Study. N Engl J Med. 325:756-762.
40. Gilligan DM, Badar DM, Panza JA, Quyyumi AA, Cannon III RO. 1995 Effects of estrogen replacement therapy on peripheral vasomotor function in postmenopausal women. Am J Cardiol. 75:264-268.
41. Cassidy A, Bingham S, Setchell K. 1995 Biological effects of isoflavones in young women: importance of the chemical composition of soyabean products. Br J Nutr. 74:587-601.
42. Potter SM, Baum JA, Teng H, Stillman RJ, Shay NF, Erdman Jr JW. Soy protein, and isoflavones: their effects on blood lipids and bone density in postmenopausal women. Am J Clin Nutr. In press.
43. Gooderham MJ, Adlercreutz H, Ojala ST, Wahala K, Holub BJ. 1996 A soy protein isolate rich in genistein and daidzein and its effects on plasma isoflavone concentrations, platelet aggregation, blood lipids and fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipid in normal men. J Nutr. 126:2000-2006.
44. Murkies AL, Lombard C, Strauss BJ, Wilcox G, Burger HG, Morton MS. 1995 Dietary flour supplementation decreases post-menopausal hot flushes: effect of soy and wheat. Maturitas. 21:189-195.
45. Anthony MS, Clarkson TB, Hughes Jr CL, Morgan TM, Burke GL. 1996 Soybean isoflavones improve cardiovascular risk factors without affecting the reproductive system of peripubertal rhesus monkeys. J Nutr. 126:43-50.
46. Potter SM. 1995 Overview of proposed mechanisms for the hypocholesterolemic effect of soy. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):606S-611S.
47. Dodge JA, Glasebrook AL, Magee DE, et al. 1996 Environmental estrogens: effects on cholesterol lowering and bone in the ovariectomized rat. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 59:155-161.
48. Sirtori CR, Lovati MR, Manzoni C, Monetti M, Pazzucconi F, Gatti E. 1995 Soy and cholesterol reduction: clinical experience. J Nutr. 125:598S-605S.
49. Sanghvi A, Diven WF, Seltman H, et al. 1985 Inhibition of rat liver cholesterol-7-alpha hydroxylase and acyl-coA; cholesterol acyl transferase activities by enterodiol and enterolactone. In: Kritchevsky D, Paoletri R, Holmes WL, eds. Drugs affecting lipid metabolism. New York: Plenum Press; 450.
50. Hirose N, Inoue T, Nishihara K, et al. 1991 Inhibition of cholesterol absorption and synthesis in rats by sesamin. J Lipid Res. 32:629-638.
51. Scanu AM. 1992 Lipoprotein(a): a genetic risk factor for premature coronary heart disease. JAMA. 267:3326-3329.
52. Kim CJ, Jang HC, Cho DH, Min YK. 1994 Effects of hormone replacement therapy on lipoprotein(a) levels and lipids in postmenopausal women. Arterioscler Thromb. 14:275-281.
53. Shewmon DA, Stock JL, Rosen CJ, et al. 1994 Tamoxifen and estrogen lower circulating lipoprotein(a) concentrations in healthy postmenopausal women. Arterioscler Thromb. 14:1586-1593.
54. Raines EW, Ross R. 1995 Biology of atherosclerotic plaque formation: possible role of growth factors in lesion development and the potential impact of soy. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):624S-630S.
55. Fotsis T, Pepper M, Adlercreutz H, Hase T, Montesano R, Schweigerer L. 1995 Genistein, a dietary ingested isoflavonoid, inhibits cell proliferation and in vitro angiogenesis. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):790S-797S.
56. Barnes S, Sfakianos J, Coward L, Kirk M. 1996 Soy isoflavonoids and cancer prevention. Underlying biochemical and pharmacological issues. Adv Exp Med Biol. 401:87-100.
57. Wilcox JN, Blumenthal BF. 1995 Thrombotic mechanisms in atherosclerosis: potential impact of soy proteins. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):631S-638S.
58. Ferrell Jr JE, Martin GS. 1988 Platelet tyrosine-specific protein phosphorylation is regulated by thrombin. Mol Cell Biol. 8:3603-3610.
59. 2+ entry in human platelets. FEBS Lett. 315:242-246.
60. 2+ entry and protein-tyrosine phosphorylation are inhibited by tyrosine kinase inhibitors genistein and methyl-2,5-dihyroxycinnamate in fura-2-loaded human platelets. J Biol Chem. 268:18151-18156.
61. 2-mediated human platelet responses. Mol Pharmacol. 39:475-480.
62. Parkin DM. 1989 Cancers of the breast, endometrium, and ovary: geographic correlations. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 25:1917-1925.
63. Ziegler RG, Hoover RN, Pike MC, et al. 1993 Migration patterns and breast cancer risk in Asian-American women. J Natl Cancer Inst. 85:1819-1827.
64. Rose DP, Boyar AP, Wynder EL. 1986 International comparisons of mortality rates for cancer of the breast, ovary, prostate and colon, and per capita food consumption. Cancer. 58:2363-2371.
65. Ingram D, Sanders K, Kolybaba M, Lopez D. 1997 Case-control study of phyto-oestrogens and breast cancer. Lancet. 350:990-994.
66. Wu AH, Ziegler RG, Horn-Ross PL, et al. 1996 Tofu and risk of breast cancer. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 5:901-906.
67. Lee HP, Gourley L, Duffy SW, Esteve J, Lee J, Day NE. 1991 Dietary effect on breast cancer risk in Singapore. Lancet. 337:1197-1200.
68. Goodman MT, Wilkens L, Hankin JH, Lyu LC, Wu AH, Kolonel LN. 1997 Association of soy and fiber consumption with the risk of endometrial cancer. Am J Epidemiol. 146:294-306.
69. Adlercreutz H, Fotsis T, Bannwart C, et al. 1986 Determination of urinary lignans and phytoestrogen metabolites, potential antiestrogens and anticarcinogens, in urine of women on various habitual diets. J Steroid Biochem. 25:791-797.
70. Davis DL, Bradlow HL, Wolff M, Woodruff T, Hoel DG, Anton-Culver H. 1993 Medical hypothesis: xenoestrogens as preventable causes of breast cancer. Environ Health Perspect. 101:372-377.
71. Clarke R, Hilakiui-Clarke L, Cho E, James RM, Leonessa F. 1996 Estrogens, phytoestrogens and breast cancer. In: American Institute for Cancer Research, ed. Dietary phytochemicals in cancer prevention and treatment. New York, London: Plenum Press; 63-85.
72. Key TJA, Pike MC. 1988 The role of oestrogens and progestagens in the epidemiology and prevention of breast cancer. Eur J Cancer Clin Oncol. 24:29-43.
73. Potter JD. 1987 Reproduction, sex steroid hormones and cancer. In: Maskens AP, Ebbesen P, Burny A, eds. Concepts and theories in carcinogenesis. New York: Elsevier; 243-256.
74. Trichopoulos D, Yen S, Brown J, et al. 1984 The effects of westernization on urine estrogens, frequency of ovulation and breast cancer risk. Cancer. 53:187-192.
75. Lamartiniere CA, Moore J, Holland M, Barnes S. 1995 Neonatal genistein chemoprevents mammary cancer. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 208:120-123.
76. Lamartiniere CA, Moore JB, Brown NM, Thompson R, Hardin MJ, Barnes S. 1995 Genistein suppresses mammary cancer in rats. Carcinogenesis. 16:2833-2840.
77. Cheng E, Lee C, Grayhack J. 1993 Endocrinology of the prostate. In: Lepor H, Lauson RK, eds. Prostate diseases. Philadelphia: Saunders; 57-71.
78. Pollard M, Luckert PH, Snyder DL. 1989 The promotional effect of testosterone on induction of prostate cancer in MNU-sensitive L-W rats. Cancer Lett. 45:209-212.
79. Lamb JC, Levy MA, Johnson RK, Isaacs JT. 1992 Response of rat and human prostatic cancers to the novel 5α-reductase inhibitors, SK.&F 105657. Prostate. 21:15-34.
80. Donn AS, Muir CS. 1985 Prostate cancer-some epidemiological features. Bull Cancer. 72:381-390.
81. Adlercreutz H, Honjo H, Higashi A, et al. 1991 Urinary excretion of lignans and isoflavonoid phytoestrogens in Japanese men and women consuming a traditional Japanese diet. Am J Clin Nutr. 54:1093-1100.
82. Sondik E. 1988 Incidence, survival and mortality trends in the United States. In: Coffey DS, Resnick MI, Dorr FA, Karr JP, eds. A multidisciplinary analysis of controversies in the management of prostate cancer. New York: Plenum Press; 9-16.
83. Miller SG. 1988 Diagnosis of stage A prostatic cancer in People's Republic of China. In: Coffey DS, Resnick MI, Dorr FA, Karr JP, eds. Multidisciplinary analysis of controversies in the management of prostatic cancer. New York: Plenum Press; 17-24.
84. Kolonel LW, Hankin JH, Nomura AMY. 1986 Multiethnic studies of diet, nutrition, and cancer in Hawaii. In: Hayashi Y, Nagao M, Sugimura T, Takayama S, Tomatis L, Wattenberg LW, Wogan GN, eds. Nutrition and cancer. Tokyo: Japanese Science Society Press; 29-40.
85. Ross RK, Bernstein L, Lobo RA, et al. 1992 5-α-Reductase activity and risk of prostate cancer among Japanese and US white and black males. Lancet. 339:887-889.
86. Adlercreutz H, Markkanen H, Watanabe S. 1993 Plasma concentrations of phyto-oestrogens in Japanese men. Lancet. 342:1209-1210.
87. Evans BA, Griffiths K, Morton MS. 1995 Inhibition of 5-alpha reductase in genital skin fibroblasts and prostate tissue by dietary lignans and isoflavonoids. J Endocrinol. 147:295-302.
88. Stephens FO. 1997 Phytoestrogens and prostate cancer: possible preventive role. Med J Australia. 167:138-140.
89. Hellstrorn M, Haggman M, Branstedt S, et al. 1993 Histopathological changes in androgen deprived localised prostatic cancer. A study of total prostatectomy specimens. Eur Urol. 24:461-465.
90. Sharma OP, Adlercrueutz H, Strandberg JD, Zirkin BR, Coffey DS, Ewing LL. 1992 Soy of dietary source plays a preventive role against the pathogenesis of prostatitis in rats. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 43:557-564.
91. Peterson G, Barnes S. 1993 Genistein and biochanin A inhibit the growth of human prostate cancer cells but not epidermal growth factor receptor tyrosine autophosphorylation. Prostate. 22:335-345.
92. Rokhlin OW, Cohen MB. 1995 Differential sensitivity of human prostatic cancer cell lines to the effects of protein kinase and phosphatase inhibitors. Cancer Lett. 98:103-110.
93. Cline JM, Obasanjo IO, Paschold JC, Adams MR, Anthony MS. 1996 Effects of hormonal therapies and dietary soy phytoestrogen on vaginal cytology in surgically postmenopausal macaques. Fertil Steril. 65:1031-1035.
94. Panno ML, Salerno M, Pezzi V, et al. 1996 Effect of oestradiol and insulin on the proliferative pattern and on oestrogen and progesterone receptor contents in MCF-7 cells. J Cancer Res Clin Oncol. 122:745-749.
95. So FV, Gunthrie N, Chambers AF, Carroll KK. 1997 Inhibition of proliferation of estrogen receptor-positive MCF-7 human breast cancer cells by flavonoids in the presence and absence of excess estrogen. Cancer Lett. 112:127-133.
96. Peterson G, Barnes S. 1996 Genistein inhibits both estrogen and growth factor stimulated proliferation of human breast cancer cells. Cell Growth Differ. 7:1345-1351.
97. Kuo SM. 1996 Antiproliferative potency of structurally distinct dietary flavonoids on human colon cancer cells. Cancer Lett. 110:41-48.
98. Mousavi Y, Adlercreutz H. 1992 Enterolactone and estradiol inhibit each other's proliferative effect on MCF-7 breast cancer cells in culture. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol. 41:615-619.
99. Wei H, Wei L, Frenkel K, Bowen R, Barnes S. 1993 Inhibition of tumor promoter-induced hydrogen peroxide formation in vitro and in vivo by genistein. Nutr Cancer. 20:1-12.
100. Wei H, Bowen R, Cai Q, Barnes S, Wang Y. 1995 Antioxidant and antipromotional effects of the soybean isoflavone genistein. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 208:124-130.
101. Peterson G. 199 Evaluation of the biochemical targets of genistein in tumor cells. J Nutr. 125(Suppl):784S-789S.
102. Ziegler J. 1994 Soybeans show promise in cancer prevention. J Natl Cancer Inst. 86:1666-1667.
103. Petrakis NL, Barnes S, King EB, et al. 1996 Stimulatory influence of soy protein isolate on breast secretion in pre- and post-menopausal women. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev. 5:785-794.
104. Kao PC, P'eng FK. 1995 How to reduce the risk factors of osteoporosis in Asia. Chin Med J. 55:209-213.
105. Ho SC, Bacon WE, Harris T, Looker A, Maggi S. 1993 Hip fracture rates in Hong Kong and the United States, 1988 through 1989. Am J Public Health. 83:694-697.
106. 3: a prospective, controlled randomized study. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 82:2476-282.
107. Adami S, Bufalino L, Cervetti R, et al. 1997 Ipriflavone prevents radial bone loss in postmenopausal women with low bone mass over 2 years. Osteoporosis Int. 7:119-125.
108. Valente M, Bufalino L, Castiglione GN, et al. 1994 Effect of a 1-year treatment with ipriflavone on bone in postmenopausal women with low bone mass. Calcif Tissue Int. 54:377-380.
109. Ushiroyama T, Okamura S, Ikeda A, Ueki M. 1995 Efficacy of ipriflavone and 1 alpha vitamin D therapy for the cessation of vertebral bone loss. Int J Gynecol Obstet. 48:283-288.
110. Gambacciani M, Spinetti A, Cappagli B, et al. 1993 Effects of ipriflavone administration on bone mass and metabolism in ovariectomized women. J Endocrinol Invest. 16:333-337.
111. Baird DD, Umbach DM, Lansdell L, et al. 1995 Dietary intervention study to assess estrogenicity of dietary soy among postmenopausal women. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 80:1685-1690.
112. Jordan VC, Fritz NF, Tormey DC. 1987 Long-term adjuvant therapy with tamoxifen: effects on sex hormone binding globulin and antithrombin III. Cancer Res. 47:4517-4519.
113. Loukovaara M, Carson M, Palotie A, Adlercreutz H. 1995 Regulation of sex hormone-binding globulin production by isoflavonoids and patterns of isoflavonoid conjugation in HepG2 cell cultures. Steroids. 60:656-661.
114. Mousavi Y, Adlercreutz H. 1993 Genistein is an effective stimulator of sex hormone-binding globulin production in hepatocarcinoma human liver cancer cells and suppresses proliferation of these cells in culture. Steroids. 58:301-304.
115. Shultz TD, Bonorden WR, Seaman WR. 1991 Effect of short-term flaxseed consumption on lignan and sex hormone metabolism in men. Nutr Res. 11:1089-1100.
116. Phipps WR, Martini MC, Lampe JW, Slavin JL, Kurzer MS. 1993 Effect of flax seed ingestion on the menstrual cycle. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 77:1215-1219.
117. Olsson H, Landlin-Olsson M, Gullberg B. 1983 Retrospective assessment of menstrual cycle length in patients with breast cancer, in patients with benign breast cancer and in women without breast cancer. J Natl Cancer Inst. 70:17-20.
118. Treolar AE, Boynton RE, Behn BG, Brown BW. 1970 Variation of the human menstrual cycle through reproductive life. Int J Fertil. 12:77-126.
119. Key TJA, Chen DY, Wang DY, Pike MC, Boreham J. 1990 Sex hormones in rural China and Britain. Br J Cancer. 62:631-636.
120. Lock M. 1991 Contested meanings of the menopause. Lancet. 337:1270-1272.