Lipid shortenings: A review

Food Research International

Volumn 35, Issue 10, 2002, Pages 1015-1048

  Ghotra, Baljit S ^a   Dyal, Sandra D ^a   Narine, Suresh S ^a  

^a UNIVERSITY OF ALBERTA   (Canada)

Author keywords

Crystallization; Fat crystal networks; Hydrogenation; Interesterification; Lipids; Mechanical modeling; Physical properties; Shortenings

Indexed keywords

LIPID;

CRYSTAL STRUCTURE; CRYSTALLIZATION; FOOD ANALYSIS; LIPID SHORTENING;

EID: 0036446618     PISSN: 09639969     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1016/S0963-9969(02)00163-1     Document Type: Review

References (223)

1. Albanese, F. (1985). Physical properties of shortenings. In J. Hollo (Ed.), Proceedings of the 16th ISF Congress Budapest, Hungary (pp. 445-455). New York: Elsevier Science Publishing Company.
2. Amey, R. L., & Chapman, D. (1984). Infrared spectroscopic studies of model and natural biomembranes. In D. Chapman (Ed.), Biomembrane Structure and Function, Topics in Molecular and Structural Biology, vol. 4 (pp. 199-256). Weinheim: Basel.
3. Andersen, A. J. C., & Williams, P. N. (1965a). Introduction and history. In A. J. C. Andersen, & P. N. Williams (Eds.), Margarine (pp. 1-17). New York: Pergamon Press.
4. Andersen, A. J. C., & Williams, P. N. (1965b). Raw materials. In A. J. C. Andersen, & P. N. Williams (Eds.), Margarine (pp. 21-80). New York: Pergamon Press.
5. Anderson, J. T., Grande, F., & Keys, A. (1961). Hydrogenated fats in the diet and lipids in the serum of man. Journal of Nutrition, 75, 388-394.
6. .12-octadecadienoic acid by the fasting rat. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 144, 525-531.
7. Anonymous. (1968). Acetylated monoglycerides make dry base toppings taste and look like whipped cream. Food Processing, 29(5), 26.
8. 13C cross-polarization and magic-angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance of polymorphic forms of three triacylglycerols. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 73, 1231-1236.
9. Avrami, M. (1939a). Kinetics of phase change. I. General theory. Journal of Chemical Physics, 7, 1103.
10. Avrami, M. (1939b). Kinetics of phase change. II. Transformations - Time relations for random distribution of nuclei. Journal of Chemical Physics, 8, 212.
11. Bailey, A. E. (Ed.) (1951). Industrial Oils and Fat Products. Bailey's Industrial Oils and Fats (pp. 691-710). New York, Inter Science Publishers.
12. Bailey, A. E., Feuge, R. O., & Smith, B. A. (1942). Variables affecting the yield of normal oleic acid produced by the catalytic hydrogenation of cotton seed and peanut oils. Oil and Soap, 19, 169-176.
13. Beal, R. E., & Lancaster, E. B. (1954). Effect of agitation on selectivity in the hydrogenation of soybean oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 31, 619-625.
14. Beare-Rogers, J. L., Gray, L. M., & Hollywood, R. (1979). The linoleic acid and trans fatty acids of margarines. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 32, 1805-1809.
15. Becker, R., & Doering, W. (1940). Ann. Chem. Phys., 8, 212.
16. Berger, K. G., Jewel, G. G., & Pollitt, R. J. M. (1979). Study of lipid systems. In J. G. Vaughan (Ed.), Food microscopy. New York: Academic Press.
17. Best, D. (1988). Fats and oils crystallize formulation opportunities. Prepared Foods, 157(5), 168-170.
18. Beveridge, J. M. R., & Connel, W. F. (1962). The effect of commercial margarines on plasma cholestrol levels in man. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 10, 391-397.
19. Birker, P. J. W. L., & Blonk, J. C. G. (1993). Alkyl chain packing in a &beta′ triacylglycerol measured by atomic force microscopy. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 70, 319-321.
20. Black, H. C., & Mattil, K. F. (1951). Edible soybean oil products. In K. S. Markley (Ed.), Soybean & Soybean Products, vol. II (pp. 787-831). New York: Interscience Publishers.
21. 13C-NMR study of the crystal polymorphism and internal mobilities of the triglycerides tripalmitin and tristearin. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 62, 1261-1266.
22. Bodman, J. W., James, E. M., & Rini, S. J. (1951). Processing of edible soybean oil. In K. S. Markley (Ed.), Soybean and Soybean Products, vol. II (pp. 689-709). New York: Interscience Publishers.
23. Boistelle, R. (1988). Fundamentals of nucleation and crystal growth. In K. Sato (Ed.), Fundamentals of Nucleation and Crystal Growth (pp. 189-226). New York: Marcel Dekker.
24. Bricknell, J., & Hartel, R. W. (1998). Relation of fat bloom in chocolate to polymorphic transition of cocoa butter. Journal of American Oil0 Chemists' Society, 75, 1609-1615.
25. Brooker, B. E. (1990). Low temperature microscopy and X-ray analysis of food systems. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 1, 100-103.
26. Brown, C. F., Gooding, C. M., & Knight, S. F. (1970). Methods for the preparation of confectioners' fats. US Patent document: 3512994, CPC International, United States.
27. Buchheim, W. (1982). Aspects of samples preparation for freeze-fracture/freeze-etch studies of proteins and lipids in food systems. A review. Food Microstruct., 1, 189-208.
28. 13C spin relaxation to investigate molecular motion in liquid tristearin. J. Chem. Phys. Lipids, 19, 56-73.
29. Chapman, D. (1955). Infra-red spectra and the polymorphism of glycerides. Nature, 176, 216.
30. Chapman, D. (1960a). Infrared spectroscopic characterization of glycerides. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 37, 73-77.
31. Chapman, D. (1960b). Nuclear resonance spectra of the polymorphic forms of glycerides. J. Chem. Soc., 436-444.
32. Chapman, D. (1962). The polymorphism of glycerides. Chem. Rev., 62, 433-456.
33. Chapman, D. (1964). Infrared spectroscopy of lipids. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 42, 353-371.
34. Chapman, D., Owens, N. F., et al. (1966). Physical studies of phospholipids. II. Monolayer studies of some synthetic 2,3-diacyl-DL-phosphatidylethanolamines and phosphatidylcholines containing trans double bonds. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 120, 148-155.
35. Chapman, G. M., Akehust, A. E., & Wright, W. B. (1971). Cocoa butter and confectionery fats. Studies using programmed temperature X-ray diffraction and differential scanning colorimetry. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 48, 824-830.
36. Charley, H. (1982). Fats and Oils. New York: Food Science, John Wiley and Sons.
37. Chrysam, M. M. (1985). Table spreads and shortenings. In T. H. Applewhite (Ed.), Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products, vol. 3 (pp. 41-125). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
38. Clarkson, C. E., & Malkin, T. (1934). Alterations in long chain compunds part II. An X-ray and thermal investigation of the triglycerides. Journal of Chemical Society, 666-671.
39. Cochran, W. M. (1981) Triglyceride composition. US Patent Document. United States, Bonge Edible Oil Corporation, IL.
40. Coenen, J. W. E. (1976). Hydrogenation of edible oils. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 53, 382-389.
41. Coots, R. H. (1964a). A comparison of the metabolism of cis, cis-linoleic, trans, trans-linoleic, and a mixture of cis,trans and trans, cis-linoleic acids in the rat. Journal of Lipid Research, 5, 473-476.
42. Coots, R. H. (1964b). A comparison of the metabolism of elaidic, oleic, [almitic, and stearic acids in the rat. Journal of Lipid Research, 5, 468-472.
43. Cornily, G., & leMeste, M. (1985). Flow behavoir of lard and its fractions at 15 C. Journal of Texture Studies, 16, 383-402.
44. Covington Jr., R. M., & Unger, E. H. (1999). Canola Shortenings for Food Application. US Patent document: 5,912,041, Cargill Incorporated, Wayzata, MN, United States.
45. Davies, A. C., & Worstall, V. D. (1966). Process and Apparatus for the Production of Fatty Products. US Patent document: 3240607, Lever Brothers Company, New York, United States.
46. deMan, J. M. (1982). Microscopy in the study of fats and emulsions. Food Microstruct., 1, 209-222.
47. deMan, J. M. (2000). Relationship among chemical, physical, and textural properties of fats. In N. Widak (Ed.), Physical Properties of Fats, Oils, and Emulsifiers (pp. 79-95). Illinois: AOCS Press.
48. deMan, J. M., & Beers, A. M. (1987). Fat crystal networks: Structure and rheological properties. J. Text. Stud., 18, 303-318.
49. deMan, J. M., & deMan, L. (2001). Polymorphism and texture of fats. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidificaton Properties of Lipids (pp. 225-235). Illinois: AOCS Press.
50. deMan, L., deMan, J. M., & Blackman, B. (1989). Polymorphic behavior of some fully hydrogenated oils and their mixtures with liquid oils. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 66, 1777-1780.
51. deMan, L., Shen, C. F., et al. (1991). Chemical and physical properties of the solid fats in commercial soft margarines. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 69(12), 1198-1205.
52. Duns, M. L. (1985). Palm oils in margarines and shortenings. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 62(2), 408-416.
53. Dziezak, J. D. (1989). Fats, oils, and fat substitutes. Food Technology, 43, 66-74.
54. Eads, T. M., Blaurock, A. E., Bryant, R. G., Roy, D. J., & Croasman, W. R. (1992). Molecular motion and transitions in solid tripalmitin measured by deuterium nuclear magnetic resonance. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 74, 1213-1220.
55. El-Shattory, Y., deMan, L., & deMan, J. M. (1981). Hydrogenation of canola oil: Influence of catalyst concentration. Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal, 14(1), 53-58.
56. Elmehdi, H. M. (2001). An Ultrasonic Investigation of the Effect of Voids on the Mechanical Properties of Bread Dough and the Role of Gas Cells in Determining the Cellular Structure of Freeze-dried Bread Crumbs. Manitoba: Deparment of Physics & Astronomy/Food Science, University of Manitoba.
57. Emken, E. A., Rohwedder, W. K., Dutton, H. J., Dejarlais, W. J., & Adolf, R. O. (1979). Incorporation of deuterium-labeled cis- and trans-9-octadecenoic acids in humans: Plasma, erythrocyte and platelet phospholipids. Lipids, 14(6), 547-554.
58. Erickson, A., Coots, R. H., Mattson, F. H., & Kligman, A. M. (1964). The effect of partial hydrogenation of dietary fats, of the ratio of polyunsaturated to saturated fatty acids, and of dietary cholestrol upon plasma lipids in man. Journal of Clinical Investigation, 43, 2017-2025.
59. FAO. (1977). Dietary Fats and Oils in Human Nutrition. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) of the United Nations and World Health Organisation (WHO).
60. Feuge, R. O. (1955). Acetoglycerides - New fat products of potential value to food industry. Food Technology, 9, 314-318.
61. Filer, L. J., Sidhu, S. S., Daubert, R. F., & Longenecker, J. E. (1946). X-ray investigation of glycerides. III. Diffraction analyses of symmetrical monooleyl-disaturated triglycerides. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 68, 167-171.
62. Flint, O. (1984). Applications of light microscopy in food analysis. Microscope, 32, 133-140.
63. Flint, O. (1991). Microscopy in the development of new food products. European Microsc. Anal., 10, 21-23.
64. Foglia, T. A., Petruso, K. K., & Feairheller, S. H. (1993). Enzymatic interesterification of tallow-sunflower oil mixtures. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 70, 281-285.
65. Formo, M. W., Jungermann, E., Norris, F. A., & Sonntag, N. O. V. (1979a). Sources, utilization, and classification of oils and fats. Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products (Vol. 1, p. 271). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
66. Formo, M. W., Jungermann, E., Norris, F. A., & Sonntag, N. O. V. (1979b). Composition and characteristic of individual fats and ails. Bailey's industrial oil and fat products (Vol. 1, p. 289). New York: John Wiley and Sons.
67. Forssell, P., Kervinen, R., Lappi, M., Linko, P., Suoptti, T., & Poutanen, K. (1992). Effect of enzymatic interesterification on the melting point of tallow-rapeseed oil (LEAR) mixture. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 69, 126-129.
68. Freeman, N. K. (1968). Applications of infrared absorption spectroscopy in the analysis of lipids. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 45, 798-809.
69. Garside, J. (1987). General principles of crystallization. In P. Lillford (Ed.), Food Structure and Behavior (pp. 51). London: Academic Press.
70. Garti, N., Welliner, E., & Sarig, S. (1982). Crystal structure modification of tristearin by food emulsifiers. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 59(4), 181-185.
71. Garti, N., Wellner, E., & Sarig, S. (1981). Effect of food emulsifiers on crystal structure and habit of stearic acid. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 58(12), 1058-1060.
72. Gawrilow, I. (1973). Process for preparing bakery products. US Patent document: 3914453, SCM Corporation, Ohio, United States.
73. Gawrilow, I. (1980). Hydrated stable fluent shortening containing solid phase emulsifier components. US Patent Document. United Stated, SCM Corporation, New York.
74. Gehrke, A. F., Marmor, R. A., Henry, W. F., & Greenberg, S. I. (1959). Cake shortening containing acetylated monoglycerides and method of making same. US Patent document: 2882167, The Pillsbury, United States.
75. Gibon, V., Durant, F., et al. (1986). Polymorphism and intersolubility of some palmitic, stearic and oleic triglycerides: PPP, PSP and POP. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 63(8), 1047-1055.
76. Gillies, M. T. (1974). Fluid shortenings. Gillies, M. T. (Ed.). Shortenings, Margarines and Food Oils (pp. 1-226). NJ: Noyes Data Corporation.
77. Gleason, J. J. (1960). Itaconic acid-modified triglyceride shortening composition and method of preparing the same. US Patent document: 2966412, The Rath Packing Company, Waterloo, Iowa, United States.
78. Gorman, W. A., Bluff., L., Christie, R. G., & Glenview Kratt, G. H. (1960). Process for manufacturing whipped fatty emulsion. US Patent document: 2937093, National Dairy Products Corporation, New York, United States.
79. Gutcho, M. (1979). Additional processes. In Gutcho, M. (Ed.) Edible Oils and Fats (pp. 350-394). NJ: Noyes Data Corporation.
80. Hagemann, J. W. (1989). Thermal behavior and polymorphism of acylglycerols. In N. Garti, & K. Sato (Eds.), Crystallization and Polymorphism of Fats and Fatty Acids (pp. 9-95). New York: Marcel Dekker.
81. Hagemann, J. W., & Rothfus, J. A. (1983). Polymorphism and transformation energetics of standard monoacid tryglycerides from differential scanning calorimetry and theoretical modelling. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 60, 1123-1131.
82. Haighton, A. J. (1959). Measurement of the hardness of margarine and fats with the cone penetrometer. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 36, 345-348.
83. Haighton, A. J. (1965). Worksoftening of margarines and shortenings. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 42, 27-30.
84. Haighton, A. J. (1976). Blending, chilling and tempering of margarines and shortenings. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 53, 397-399.
85. Haumann, B. F. (1997). Structured lipids allow fat tailoring. INFORM, 8, 1004-1011.
86. Hay, J. D., & Morrison, W. R. (1970). Isomeric monoenoic fatty acids in bovine milk fat. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 202, 237-243.
87. Hayashi, Y., & Takama, N. (1968). Process for the manufacture of dry shortening. US Patent document: 3393075, Nippon Oils & Fats Company Limited, Tokyo, Japan.
88. Hecker, H. P., & Melcher, F. W. (1978). Trans-isomeric fatty acids present in West German margarines, shortenings, frying and cooking fats. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 31, 1041-1049.
89. Heertje, I., Leunis, M., van Zeyl, W. J. M., & Berends, E. (1987). Product morphology of fatty products. Food Microstructure, 6, 1-8.
90. Heertje, I., van der Vlist, P., Blonk, J. C. G., Hendrickx, H. A. C., & Brackenhot, G. J. (1987). Confocal laser scanning microscopy in food research: Some observations. Food Microstructure, 6, 115-120.
91. Heertje, I., van Eendenburg, J., Cornelisson, J. M., & Juriaanse, A. C. (1988). The effect of processing on some microstructural characteristics of fat spreads. Food Microstructure, 7, 189-193.
92. Hoerr, C. W. (1960). Morphology of fats oils and shortening. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 37, 539-546.
93. Hoerr, C. W., & Waugh, D. F. (1955). Some physical characteristic of rearranged lard. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 32, 37-41.
94. Houtsmuller, U. M. T. (1978). Biochemical aspects of fatty acids withtrans double bonds. Fette-Seifen Anstrichmittel, 80, 162-169.
95. Inoe, S. (1987). Video Microscopy. New York: Plenum Press.
96. Jacobsberg, B., & Ho, C. O. H. (1976). Studies in palm oil crystallization. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 53, 609-617.
97. Johnston, P. V., Johnson, O. C., & Kummerow, F. A. (1957). Occurence of trans fatty acids in human tissue. Science, 126, 698-699.
98. Kalab, M. (1983). Electron microscopy of foods. In E. B. Bagley (Ed.), Physical Properties of Foods (pp. 43-104). Westport, CT: AVI Publishing.
99. Kamel, S. B. (1992). Characteristic of bread and buns made with lard and Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society vegetable oils of different iodine value. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 69(8), 794-796.
100. Kawamura, K. (1979). The DSC thermal analysis of crystallization behavior in palm oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 56(8), 753-758.
101. Kellens, M., Meeussen, W., & Reynaers, H. (1992). Study of polymorphism and crystallization kinetics of tripalmitin: A microscopic approach. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 69, 906-911.
102. Khanna, Y. P., & Taylor, T. J. (1988). Comments and recommendations on the use of the Avrami equation for physico chemical kinetics. Polymer Engineering and Science, 28(16), 1042-1045.
103. Kidger, D. P. (1966). Process for making filler composition. US Patent document: 3244536, National Biscuit Company, N. Jersey, United States.
104. Kloek, W. (1998). Mechanical Properties of Fats in Relation to Their Crystallization. Waginen Agricultural University.
105. Kok, L. L., Fehr, W. R., Hammond, E. G., & White, P. J. (1999). Trans-free margarines from highly saturated soybean oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 76(10), 1175-1181.
106. Kriz, E. F., & Oszlanyi, A.G. (1976). Pastery shortenings. US Patent document: 3985911, SCM Corporation, Ohio, United States.
107. Krog, N. (1977). Functions of emulsifiers in food systems. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 54(3), 124-131.
108. Kummerow, F. A., Mizuguchi, T., Arima, T., Cho, B. H. S., & Huang, W. J. (1978). The influence of three sources of dietary fats and cholestrol on lipid composition of swine serum lipids and aorta tissue. Artery, 4, 360-384.
109. Kurashige, I., Matsuzaki, N., & Takahaski, H. (1993). Enzymatic modification of canola/palm oil mixtures: Effects on the fluidity of the mixture. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 70(9), 849-852.
110. Kuroda, T., & Sato, K. (1987). Kinetics of melt crystallization and transformation of tripalmitin polymorphs. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 64(1), 124-127.
111. Larsson, K. (1966). Classification of glyceride crystal forms. Acta Chemica Scandinavica, 20, 2255-2260.
112. Larsson, K. (1994). Lipids - Molecular Organization, Physical Functions and Technical Applications. West Ferry, Dundee: The Oily Press.
113. Lee, K.-T., & Akoh, C. C. (1997). Effects of selected substrate forms on the synthesis of structured lipids by two immobilized lipases. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 74(5), 579-584.
114. Long, Y., Shanks, R. A., & Stachurski, Z. B. (1995). Kinetics of polymer crystallization. Progress in Polymer Science, 20, 651-701.
115. Lovergren, N. V., Gray, M. S., & Fuege, R. O. (1976). Polymorphic changes in mixtures of confectionery fats. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 53, 53-83.
116. Luce, G. T. (1967). Acetylated monoglycerides as coating for selected foods. Food Technology, 21, 1462-1468.
117. Lutton, E. S. (1945). The polymorphism of tristearin and some of its homologs. Journal of American Chemists' Society, 67, 524-527.
118. Lutton, E. S. (1950). Review of the polymorphism of saturated even glycerides. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 27, 276-281.
119. Lutton, E. S., & Jackson, F. L. (1950). The polymorphism of synthetic and natural 2-oleyldipalmitin. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 72, 3254-3257.
120. Lyklema, J. (1991). Fundamentals of Interface and Colloid Science. London: Academic Press.
121. Macrae, A. R. (1983). Lipase-catalysed interesterification of oils and fats. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 60(2), 291-294.
122. Mag, T. K. (1994). Changes in Canada's fats and oils industry. INFORM, 5, 827-832.
123. Manderstam, L. H. (1939). Continous hydrogenation in the oil hardening industry. Oil and Soap, 16, 166-172.
124. Marangoni, A. G. (1998). On the use and misuse of Avrami equation in characterization of the kinetics of fat crystallization. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 75(10), 1465-1467.
125. Marangoni, A. G. (2000). Elasticity of high volume fraction fractal aggregate networks: A thermodynamic approach. Physical Review B, 62, 13950-13955.
126. Marangoni, A. G., & Hartel, R. W. (1998). Visualization and structural analysis of fat crystal networks. Food Technology, 9, 46-52.
127. Marangoni, A. G., & Narine, S. S. (2001). Elasticity of fractal aggregate networks: Mechanical arguments. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 153-159). Champaign, IL: AOCS.
128. Marangoni, A. G., & Rousseau, D. (1996). Is plastic fat rheology is governed by the fractal nature of the fat crystal network?. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 73, 991-993.
129. Marangoni, A. G., & Rousseau, D. (1998). The influence of chemical interesterification on the physicochemical properties of complex fat systems. 3. Rheology and fractality of the crystal network. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 75, 1633-1636.
130. Matsui, N., Tomita, T., et al. (1971). Fluid shortening composition. US Patent document: 3563766, Kao Soap Company Limited, Tokoyo, Japan.
131. Mattil, K. F. (1964a). Plastic shortening agents. In D. Swern (Ed.), Bailey's industrial oil and fat products (pp. 265-388). Interscience Publishers - A Division of John Wiley and Sons.
132. Mattil, K. F. (1964b). Hydrogenation. In D. Swern (Ed.), Bailey's Industrial Oil and Fat Products (pp. 794-823). Interscience Publishers - A Division of John Wiley & Sons.
133. Mavis, R. D., & Vegelos, P. R. (1972). The effect of phospholipid fatty acids composition on membranous enzymes in E. coli. The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 247(3), 652-659.
134. Mensink, R. P., & Katan, M. B. (1993). Trans monounsaturated fatty acids in nutrition and their impact on serum lipoprotein levels in man. Progress in Lipid Research, 32(1), 111-122.
135. Moussata, C. O., & Akoh, C. C. (1998). Influence of lipase-catalysed interesterification on the oxidative stability of melon seed oil triacylglycerols. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 75(9), 1155-1159.
136. Moziar, C., deMan, J. M., & deMan, J. M. (1989). Effect of tempering on the physical properties of shortening. Canadian Institute of Food Science and Technology Journal, 22(3), 238-242.
137. Naguib-Mostafa, A., & deMan, J. M. (1985). Polymorphism of hydrogenated canola oils. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 62, 756-759.
138. Nakamura, S. (1997). Using sucrose esters as food emulsifiers. INFORM, 8, 866-874.
139. Narine, S. S. (2000). Structure and mechanical properties of fat crystal networks. Guelph: Department of Food Science, University of Guelph.
140. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999a). Fractal nature of fat crystal networks. Physical Review, 59, 1908-1920.
141. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999b). Mechanical and structural model of fractal networks of fat crystals at low deformations. Physical Review E, 60(6), 6991-7000.
142. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999c). Relating structure of fat crystal networks to mechanical properties: A review. Food Research International, 32(4), 227-248.
143. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999d). Factors influencing the texture of plastic fats. INFORM, 10(6), 565-570.
144. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999e). The difference between cocoa butter and salatrim lies in the microstructure of the fat crystal network. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 76, 7-13.
145. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (1999f). Microscopic and rheological studies of fat crystal networks. J. Cryst. Growth, 198/199, 1315-1319.
146. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2002b). Elastic modulus as an indicator of macroscopic hardness of fat crystal networks. Lebensmittelwissenschaft und Technologie (in press).
147. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2000). Structure of fat crystal networks: Quantification, interrelationships, and prediction of elastic properties. In Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on Confectionary Science. University Park, PA, USA: Pennslyvania State University, Department of Food Science and the PMCA.
148. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2002a). Structure and mechanical properties of fat crystal networks. In A. G. Marangoni, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Physical Properties of lipids. New York: Marcel Dekker.
149. Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2002b). Effects of environmental processing conditions on the mechanical properties of weakly attracting fractal triglyceride networks. Physical Review E (submitted for publication).
150. Nasir, M. I. (2001). Effects of sucrose polyesters and sucrose polyester-lecithins on crystallization rate of vegetable ghee. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 87-95). IL: AOCS Press.
151. Nederveen, C. J. (1963). Dynamic mechanical behaviour of suspensions of fat particles in oil. Journal of Colloids and Interface Science, 18, 276-291.
152. Nelson, K. W. (1969). Baker's all-purpose, plastic shortening composition. US Patent document: 3429714. OH, USA: The Procter and Gamble Company.
153. Nor Aini, I. (2001). Effects of tempering on physical properties of shortening based on binary blends of palm oil and anhydrous milk fat during storage. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 42-52). IL: AOCS Press.
154. Norton, I. T., Lee-Tuffnel, C. D., Ablett, S., & Bociek, S. M. (1985). A calorimetric, NMR and X-ray diffraction study of the melting behavior of tripalmitin and tristearin and their mixing behavior with triolein. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 62, 1237-1244.
155. O'Connor, R. T., DuPre, E. F., & Feuge, R. O. (1955). The infrared spectra of mono-, di-, and triglycerides. Journal of the American Chemists' Society, 33, 88-93.
156. Oomah, B. D., & Mazza, G. (1999). Health benefits of phytochemicals from selected Canadian crops. Trends in Food Science and Technology, 10, 193-198.
157. Ovsienko, D., & Alfintsev, G. (1980). Crystals, Growth and Properties. H. C. Freyhardt (Ed.) (pp. 118-169). Berlin: Springer Verlag.
158. Paul, S., & Mittal, G. S. (1996). Dynamics of fat/oil degradation during frying based on physical properties. Journal of Food Process Engineering, 19, 201-221.
159. Persmark, U., Melin, K. A., & Stahl, P. O. (1976). Palm oil, its polymorphism and solidification properties. La Rivista Italiana Delle Sostanze Grasse, 53, 301-306.
160. Pyler, E. J. (1952). Plastic baking fats. In Pyler, E. J. (Ed.) Baking Science and Technology (Vol. I, pp. 279-308). Chicago, IL: Siebel Publishing Company.
161. Reddy, S. Y., & Jeyarani, T. (2001). Trans-free bakery sortenings from mango kernel and mahua fats by fractionation and blending. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 78(6), 635-640.
162. Riiner, U. (1970). Investigation of the polymorphism of fats and oils by temperature programmed X-ray diffraction. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 3(6), 101-106.
163. Riiner, U. (1971a). Phase behavior of hydrogenated fats IV. Influence of polymorphism on the consistency of margarines. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 4(6), 175-179.
164. Riiner, U. (1971b). Effect of the hydrolysis on the solidification of fats. Lebensmittel Wissenschaft und Technologie, 4(3), 76-80.
165. Rivarola, G., Anon, M. C., & Calvelo, A. (1988). Influence of phospholipids on the crystallization of waxes in sunflowerseed oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 65, 1771-1773.
166. Rivarola, G., Segura, J. A., Anon, M. C., & Calvelo, A. (1987). Crystallization of hydrogenated sunflower-cottonseed oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 64(11), 1537-1543.
167. Rousseau, D. (1996). Restructuring butterfat through blending and chemical interesterification. 3. Rheology. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 73, 983-989.
168. Rousseau, D., Forestiere, K., Hill, A. B., & Marangoni, A. G. (1996). Restructuring butter fat through blending and chemical interesterification. 1. Melting behavior and triacylglycerol modifications. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 73, 963-972.
169. Rousseau, D., Hill, A. R., et al. (973). Restructuring butterfat through blending and chemical interesterification. 2. Microstructure and polymorphism. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 73-981.
170. Rousseau, D., & Marangoni, A. G. (1998). Tailoring the textural attributes of butterfat/canola oil blends via Rhizopus arrhizus lipase-catalysed interesterification. 2. Modification of physical properties. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 46, 2375-2381.
171. Rousset, P. (2002). Modelling the crystallization kinetics of triacylglycerols. In A. G. M. a.S.S. Narine (Ed.), Physical Properties of Lipids (pp. 1-35). New York: Marcel-Dekker.
172. Sargeant, J. A. (1988). The application of cold stage scanning electron microscopy to food research. Food Microstructure, 7, 123-135.
173. Sato, K. (1999). Solidification and phase transformation behavior of food fats - A review. Fette-Seifen Anstrichmittel, 101, 467-474.
174. Sato, K. (2001). Molecular aspects in fat polymorphism. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 1-16). IL: AOCS Press.
175. Schlichter-Aronhime, J., & Garti, N. (1988). Solidification and polymorphism in cocoa butter and the blooming of fats and fatty acids. In N. Garti, & K. Sato (Eds.), Crystallization and Polymorphism of Fats and Fatty Acids (pp. 363-393). New York: Marcel Dekker.
176. Scholfield, C. R., Davison, V. L., & Dutton, H. J. (1967). Determination of geometrical and positional isomers of fatty acids in partially hydrogenated fats. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 44, 648-651.
177. Seguine, E. S. (1991). Tempering - The inside story. Manufacturing Confectioner, 71, 117-125.
178. Seriburi, V., & Akoh, C. C. (1998). Enzymatic interesterification of lard and high-oleic sunflower oil with Candida Altartica lipase to produce plastic fats. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 75(10), 1339-1345.
179. Shen, C. F., deMan, L., & deMan, J. M. (1990). Effect of palm stearin and hydrogenated palm oil on the polymorphic stability of hydrogenated canola oil. ELAEIS, 2, 143-156.
180. Shukla, A., & Rizvi, S. S. H. (1996). Relationship among chemical composition, microstructure and rheological properties of butter. Milchwissenschaft, 51(3), 144-148.
181. Sinram, R. D., & Hartman, G. J. (1989). Flavored vegetable oils as a substitute for beef tallow in deep frying application. Food Technology, 43, 90-94.
182. Sloan, G. J., & McGhie, A. R. (1988). Techniques of Melt Crystallization. New York: John Wiley and Sons.
183. Smith, L. M., Dunkley, W. I., Franke, A., & Dairiki, T. (1978). Measurement of trans and other isomeric unsaturated fatty acids in butter and margarine. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 55, 257-261.
184. Softly, B. J., Huang, A. S., Finley, J. W., Petershein, M., Yarger, R. G., Chrysam, M. M., et al. (1994). Composition of representative salatrim fat preparations. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry, 42, 461-467.
185. Supaphol, P., & Spruiell, J. E. (2000). Application of the Avrami, Tobin, Malkin and simultaneous Avrami amcrokinetic models to isothermal crystallization of syndiotactic polypropylene. Journal of Macromolecular Science Physics, B39(2), 257-277.
186. Thomas, A. E. III (1978). Shortening formulation and control. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 55(11), 830-833.
187. Timms, R. E. (1979). The physical properties of blends of fat with beef tallow and beef tallow fractions. The Australian Journal of Dairy Technology, 34, 60-65.
188. Timms, R. E. (1985). Physical properties of oils and mixtures of oils. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 62(2), 241-249.
189. Toro-Vazquez, J. F. (2001). Triacylglyceride crystallization in vegetable oils. In S. Narine (Ed.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 53-78). Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
190. Toro-Vazquez, J. F., Briceno-Montelongo, M., Dibildox-Alvarado, E., Charo-Alonso, M., & Reyes-Hernandez, J. (2000). Crystallization kinetics of Palm stearin in blends with sesame seed oil. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 77(3), 297-310.
191. Toro-Vazquez, J. F., & Dibildox-Alvarado, E. (1997). Parameters that determine tripalmitin crystallization in sesame oil. Journal of Food Lipids, 4, 269-282.
192. Toro-Vazquez, J. F., Didildox-Alvarado, E., Herrera-Coronado, V., & Charo-Alonso, M. A. (2001). Triglyceride crystallization in vegetable oils: Application of models, measurements, and limitations. In N. Widlak, R. Hartel, & S. S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 53-78). IL: AOCS Press.
193. Turnbull, D., & Fischer, J. (1949). J. Chem. Phys., 17, 71-73.
194. Vaisey-Genser, M., Vane, B. K., et al. (1988). Graininess Crystal Size and Firmness of Stored Canola Oil Margarines. Winnipeg: Department of Foods and Nutrition, University of Manitoba.
195. Vaisey-Genser, M., & Yalimaki (1989). Baking with canola oil products. Cereal Foods World, 34(3), 246.
196. Vaisey-Genser, M., Yalimaki, G., & Johnston, B. (1987). The selection of levels of canola oil, water, and an emulsifier system in cake formulation by response-surface methodology. Cereal Chemistry, 64(1), 50-54.
197. Van den Tempel, M. (1961). Mechanical properties of plastic-disperse systems at very small deformations. Journal of Colloids and Interface Science, 16, 284-296.
198. Vergrosen, A. J. (1972). Dietary fat and cardiovascular disease: Possible modes of action of linoleic acid. The Proceedings of the Nutritional Society, 31, 323-329.
199. Volmer, M. (1939). Kinetik der Phasenbildung. Leipzig: Steinkoppf.
200. Volmer, M., & Weber, A. (1926). Z. Phys. Chem., 119, 227.
201. Wan, P. J. (1990). Food emulsions and foams - Theory and practice. American Institute of Chemical Engineers, 86(277), 40-41.
202. Ward, J. (1988). Processing canola oil products. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 65(11), 1731-1734.
203. Weiss, T. J. (1966). Shortening composition. US Patent document: 3230090. Chicago IL, United States: Swift and Company.
204. Weiss, T. J. (Ed.). (1970). Food Oils and Their Uses. Westport: AVI Publishing Company.
205. Weiss, T. J. (Ed.). (1983). Food Oils and Their Uses. Connecticut: AVI Publishing Company.
206. Wiedermann, L. H. (1972). Margarine and margarine oils: Finished product quality. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 49(8), 478-480.
207. Wiedermann, L. H. (1978). Margarine and margarine oil: Formulation and control. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 55, 823-829.
208. Wiedermann, L. H., Wiess, J. T., Jacobsen, G. A., & Mattil, K. F. (1961). A comparison of sodium methoxide-treated lards. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 38, 389-395.
209. Willie, R. L., & Lutton, E. S. (1966). Polymorphism of cocoa butter. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 43, 491-496.
210. Wilton, I., & Wode, G. (1963). Quick and simple methods of studying crystallization behavior of fats. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 40, 707-711.
211. Woodrow, I. L., & deMan, J. M. (1968a). Distribution of trans unsaturated fatty acids in milk fat. Biochimica et Biophysica Acta, 152, 472-478.
212. Woodrow, I. L., & deMan, J. M. (1968b). Polymorphism in milk fat shown by X-ray diffraction and infrared spectroscopy. Journal of Dairy Science, 51, 996-1000.
213. Wright, A. J., Hartel, R. W., Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2000). The effect of minor components on milk fat crystallization. Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society, 77(5), 463-475.
214. Wright, A. J., Narine, S. S., & Marangoni, A. G. (2001). Comparison of experimental techniques used in lipid crystallization studies. In R. H. N. Widlak, & S. Narine (Eds.), Crystallization and Solidification Properties of Lipids (pp. 120-131). Champaign, IL: AOCS Press.
215. Xu, C., Zipfel, W., Shear, J. B., Williams, R. M., & Webb, W. W. (1996). Multiphoton fluorescence excitation: New spectral windows for biological nonlinear microscopy. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 10763-10768.
216. Yano, J. (1998). Vibrational Spectroscopic Study on Structures and Polymorphic Transformations of Triacylglycerols. Osaka: Department of Macromolecular Science, Osaka University.
217. 1-form and 1,2-Dipalmitoyl-3-myristoyl-sn-glycerol. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101(41), 8120-8128.
218. 2 progression bands of saturated monoacid triacylglycerols. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 101(41), 8112-8119.
219. Yap, P. H. (1988). Polymorphism of Palm Oil and the Effect of Addition of Palm Oil on the Polymorphic Properties of Hydrogenated Canola Oil. Thesis. Guelph: University of Guelph.
220. Yap, P. H., deMan, J. M., & deMan, L. (1989). Polymorphic stability of hydrogenated canola oil as affected by addition of palm oil. Journal of American Oil Chemists' Society, 66(12), 1784-1791.
221. Yiu, S. H. (1985). A fluorescence microscopic study of cheese. Food Microstructure, 4, 99-106.
222. Young, V. (1980). Processing of oils and fats. In R. J. Hamilton, & A. Bhati (Eds.), Fats and Oils: Chemistry and Technology (pp. 135-165). London, UK: Applied Science Publishers Limited.
223. Yuki, A., Matsuda, K., & Nishimura, A. (1990). Effect of sucrose polyesters on crystallization behavior of vegetable shortening and margarine fat. Journal of Japan Oil Chemists' Society, 39, 236-244.