Store choice and shopping behavior: How price format works

California Management Review

Volumn , Issue 2, 2001, Pages 56-74

  Tang, Christopher S ^a   Bell, David R ^a   Ho, Teck Hua ^a  

^a NONE

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EID: 0035635859     PISSN: 00081256     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.2307/41166075     Document Type: Article

References (76)

1. Supermarket Business (January 1993).
2. Besides price format, we study the effect of other variables, such as product quality and assortment that also influence store choice. See, for example, S.J. Arnold, , T.E. Oum, and D.J. Tigert, "Determinant Attributes in Retail Patronage: Seasonal, Temporal, Regional, and International Comparisons," Journal of Marketing Research, 20/2 (May 1983): 149-157. An important contribution of our framework is that the effect of these non-price marketing variables is captured by their influence on consumer perceptions of the utility of shopping in a particular store.
3. S.J. Hoch, X. Dreze, and M.E. Purk, "EDLP, Hi-Lo, and Margin Arithmetic," Journal of Marketing, 58/4 (November 1994): 16-27; S.J. Hoch, B-D. Kim, A.L. Montgomery, and P.E. Rossi, "Determinants of Store-Level Price Elasticity," Journal of Marketing Research, 32/1 (February 1995): 17-29; V. Shankar and R. Bolton, "Dimensions and Determinants of Retailer Pricing Strategy and Tactics," Marketing Science Institute Working Paper, 1999. Ho et al. provide a theoretical underpinning to explain why average prices and price variability should move together. They show that if one store charges a higher average price than its competitor for a particular item, it should normatively have a higher variability in the price for that item in order to be perceived as imposing equivalent utility on the consumer. T-H. Ho, C. Tang, and D.R. Bell, "Rational Shopping Behavior and the Option Value of Variable Pricing," Management Science, 44/12, Part 2 (December 1998): S145-S160.
4. S.J. Hoch, X. Dreze, and M.E. Purk, "EDLP, Hi-Lo, and Margin Arithmetic," Journal of Marketing, 58/4 (November 1994): 16-27; S.J. Hoch, B-D. Kim, A.L. Montgomery, and P.E. Rossi, "Determinants of Store-Level Price Elasticity," Journal of Marketing Research, 32/1 (February 1995): 17-29; V. Shankar and R. Bolton, "Dimensions and Determinants of Retailer Pricing Strategy and Tactics," Marketing Science Institute Working Paper, 1999. Ho et al. provide a theoretical underpinning to explain why average prices and price variability should move together. They show that if one store charges a higher average price than its competitor for a particular item, it should normatively have a higher variability in the price for that item in order to be perceived as imposing equivalent utility on the consumer. T-H. Ho, C. Tang, and D.R. Bell, "Rational Shopping Behavior and the Option Value of Variable Pricing," Management Science, 44/12, Part 2 (December 1998): S145-S160.
5. S.J. Hoch, X. Dreze, and M.E. Purk, "EDLP, Hi-Lo, and Margin Arithmetic," Journal of Marketing, 58/4 (November 1994): 16-27; S.J. Hoch, B-D. Kim, A.L. Montgomery, and P.E. Rossi, "Determinants of Store-Level Price Elasticity," Journal of Marketing Research, 32/1 (February 1995): 17-29; V. Shankar and R. Bolton, "Dimensions and Determinants of Retailer Pricing Strategy and Tactics," Marketing Science Institute Working Paper, 1999. Ho et al. provide a theoretical underpinning to explain why average prices and price variability should move together. They show that if one store charges a higher average price than its competitor for a particular item, it should normatively have a higher variability in the price for that item in order to be perceived as imposing equivalent utility on the consumer. T-H. Ho, C. Tang, and D.R. Bell, "Rational Shopping Behavior and the Option Value of Variable Pricing," Management Science, 44/12, Part 2 (December 1998): S145-S160.
6. S.J. Hoch, X. Dreze, and M.E. Purk, "EDLP, Hi-Lo, and Margin Arithmetic," Journal of Marketing, 58/4 (November 1994): 16-27; S.J. Hoch, B-D. Kim, A.L. Montgomery, and P.E. Rossi, "Determinants of Store-Level Price Elasticity," Journal of Marketing Research, 32/1 (February 1995): 17-29; V. Shankar and R. Bolton, "Dimensions and Determinants of Retailer Pricing Strategy and Tactics," Marketing Science Institute Working Paper, 1999. Ho et al. provide a theoretical underpinning to explain why average prices and price variability should move together. They show that if one store charges a higher average price than its competitor for a particular item, it should normatively have a higher variability in the price for that item in order to be perceived as imposing equivalent utility on the consumer. T-H. Ho, C. Tang, and D.R. Bell, "Rational Shopping Behavior and the Option Value of Variable Pricing," Management Science, 44/12, Part 2 (December 1998): S145-S160.
7. Ho et al., op. cit.
8. On average, a customer makes 86.4 shopping trips per year and shops every 4.2 days.
9. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
10. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
11. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
12. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
13. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
14. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
15. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
16. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
17. See, for example, D. Huff, "Defining and Estimating a Trading Area," Journal of Marketing, 28 (July 1964): 34-38; S.C. Craig, A. Ghosh, and S. McLafferty, "Models of the Retail Location Process: A Review" Journal of Retailing, 60/1 (Spring 1984): 5-36; S. Brown, "Retail Location Theory: The Legacy of Harold Hotelling," Journal of Retailing, 65/4 (Winter 1989): 450-470; F.J. Mulhern and R.P. Leone, "Retail Promotional Advertising: Do the Number of Deal Items and Size of Deal Discounts Affect Store Performance," Journal of Business Research, 21/3 (1990): 179-194; J.R. Lumpkin and J.J. Burnett, "Identifying Determinants of Store Type Choice of the Mature Consumer," Journal of Applied Business Research, 8/1 (Winter 1991): 89-102; G. Ortmeyer, J.A. Quelch, and W. Salmon, "Restoring Credibility to Retail Pricing" Sloan Management Review, 33/1 (Fall 1991): 55-66; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappey, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32/6 (November 1992): 59-77; Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.; R. Lal and R. Rao, "Supermarket Competition: The Case of Every Day Low Pricing" Marketing Science, 16/1 (1997): 60-80.
18. See, for example, D.R. Bell and J.M. Lattin, "Shopping Behavior and Consumer Response to Retail Price Format: Why 'Large Basket' Shoppers Prefer EDLP," Marketing Science, 17/1 (1998): 66-88;
19. D.R. Bell, T-H. Ho, and C.S. Tang, "Determining Where to Shop: Fixed and Variable Costs of Shopping," Journal of Marketing Research, 35/3 (August 1998): 352-369; Ho et al., op. cit.
20. D.R. Bell, T-H. Ho, and C.S. Tang, "Determining Where to Shop: Fixed and Variable Costs of Shopping," Journal of Marketing Research, 35/3 (August 1998): 352-369; Ho et al., op. cit.
21. See, for example, A. Finn and J.J. Louviere, "Shopping Center Image, Consideration, and Choice: Anchor Store Contribution," Journal of Business Research, 35/3 (March 1996): 241-251.
22. The size and composition of the shopping list affects task definition, which has been shown to affect store choice. See, for example, Patrick Van Kenhove, Kristof De Wulf, and Walter Van Waterschoot, "The Impact of Task Definition on Store-Attribute Saliences and Store Choice," Journal of Retailing, 75/1 (Spring 1999): 125-137.
23. See, for example, N.K. Malhotra, "Modeling Store Choice Based on Censored Preference Data," Journal of Retailing, 62/2 (Summer 1986): 128-144.
24. See, for example, N.K. Malhotra, "A Threshold Model of Store Choice," Journal of Retailing, 59/2 (Summer 1983): 3-21.
25. E.J. Wilson and A.G. Woodside, "A Comment on Patterns of Store Choice and Customer Gain/Loss Analysis," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19/4 (Fall 1991): 377-382; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappy, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32 (November 1992): 59-77.
26. E.J. Wilson and A.G. Woodside, "A Comment on Patterns of Store Choice and Customer Gain/Loss Analysis," Journal of the Academy of Marketing Science, 19/4 (Fall 1991): 377-382; A.G. Woodside and R.J. Trappy, "Finding Out Why Customers Shop Your Store and Buy Your Brand: Automatic Cognitive Processing Models of Primary Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 32 (November 1992): 59-77.
27. Ho et al., op. cit.
28. R.T. Rust and N. Donthu, "Capturing Geographically Localized Misspecification Error in Retail Store Choice Models," Journal of Marketing Research, 32/1 (February 1995): 103-110.
29. Bell et al. (1998), op. cit.
30. Note that the vertical axis represents the total cost of shopping and the horizontal axis the size of shopping basket.
31. Note that the threshold denotes the size of shopping basket at which stores A and B impose the same expected cost of shopping on the consumer. It is essentially a "breakeven" point, from the perspective of the shopper.
32. See, for example, Lumpkin and Burnett, op. cit.
33. See, for example, Huff, op. cit.; Craig et al., op. cit.; Brown, op. cit.
34. See, for example, Huff, op. cit.; Craig et al., op. cit.; Brown, op. cit.
35. See, for example, Huff, op. cit.; Craig et al., op. cit.; Brown, op. cit.
36. E.M. Thelen and A.G. Woodside, "What Evokes the Brand or Store? Consumer Research on Accessibility Theory Applied to Modeling Primary Choice," International Journal of Research in Marketing, 14/2 (May 1997): 125-145.
37. F.W. Langrehr and R. Heikki, "Patterns of Store Choice: A Replication," Food Marketing, 3 (1987): 33-44.
38. Mulhern and Leone, op. cit.
39. Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.
40. Chain Store Age, "Store Choice," Section 3, Shopping Chicago Supplement (October 1996), pp. 10B-12B.
41. Lal and Rao, op. cit.
42. Ho et al. (1998), op. cit.
43. This implies that consumers tend to make more trips to HILO stores than EDLP stores. Our empirical analysis in Table 1 confirms this implication. Specifically, store H1 captures more shopping trips than stores E1 and E2.
44. The advantage of using the logit model in store choice has been discussed in Meyer and Eagle. R.J. Meyer and T.C. Eagle, "Context-Induced Parameter Instability in a Disaggregate-Stochastic Model of Store Choice," Journal of Marketing Research, 19/1 (February 1982): 62-71.
45. Ho et al. (1998), op. cit.
46. Kahn and Schmittlein (1989; 1992) B. Kahn and D.C. Schmittlein, "Shopping Trip Behavior: An Empirical Investigation" Marketing Letters, 1/1 (1989): 59-69; B. Kahn and D.C. Schmittlein, "The Relationship Between Purchases Made on Promotion and Shopping Trip Behavior" Journal of Retailing, 68/3 (Fall 1992): 294-315.
47. Kahn and Schmittlein (1989; 1992) B. Kahn and D.C. Schmittlein, "Shopping Trip Behavior: An Empirical Investigation" Marketing Letters, 1/1 (1989): 59-69; B. Kahn and D.C. Schmittlein, "The Relationship Between Purchases Made on Promotion and Shopping Trip Behavior" Journal of Retailing, 68/3 (Fall 1992): 294-315.
48. Technically speaking, it allows store B to capture more "small basket trips." This could mean that either store B attracts these types of trips from existing customers, or, it attracts new customers, or both.
49. M. Wilson, "CompUSA Reprograms Image," Chain Store Age, 74/3 (March 1998): 150-51.
50. Discount Store News, "Convenience Format Puts Home Depot on the Neighborhood Map," December 14, 1998, p. 31; J.L. Johnson, "Costco: Big and Bold," Discount Merchandiser, 37 (December 1997): 23-25.
51. Discount Store News, "Convenience Format Puts Home Depot on the Neighborhood Map," December 14, 1998, p. 31; J.L. Johnson, "Costco: Big and Bold," Discount Merchandiser, 37 (December 1997): 23-25.
52. S. Reda, "Store Expansion/Remodeling Program Changes the Face of Walgreen," Stores, 79 (April 1997): 92-94.
53. K. Strauss, "Nordstrom Develops In-store Concept 'for the next millennium,'" Nation's Restaurant News, 33 (February 1999): 24-27.
54. Marketscan, "Loblaws Opens its 'ultimate' Store in Toronto, Makes Long-Awaited Montreal Debut," http://www.bizlink.com/Content/grocer/05-98.
55. Chain Store Age, "Retail Store of the Year: Supermarket, Busch's Marketplace," 74/2 (February 1998): 8; Chain Store Age, "Retail Store of the Year: Supermarket, Harris Teeter," 74/2 (February 1998): 6.
56. Chain Store Age, "Retail Store of the Year: Supermarket, Busch's Marketplace," 74/2 (February 1998): 8; Chain Store Age, "Retail Store of the Year: Supermarket, Harris Teeter," 74/2 (February 1998): 6.
57. Progressive Grocer, "How Vons Makes it Work," 73 (October 1994): SS8; Progressive Grocer, "Vons: Anatomy of a Turnaround," 75 (October 1996): 30.
58. Progressive Grocer, "How Vons Makes it Work," 73 (October 1994): SS8; Progressive Grocer, "Vons: Anatomy of a Turnaround," 75 (October 1996): 30.
59. Johnson, op. cit.; R. Scally, "Costco Ready to Grow Clubs and Expand Private Label," Discount Store News, February 8, 1999, pp. 1, 72.
60. Johnson, op. cit.; R. Scally, "Costco Ready to Grow Clubs and Expand Private Label," Discount Store News, February 8, 1999, pp. 1, 72.
61. Scally, op. cit.
62. A.M. Hughes, "How Safeway Built Loyalty - Especially Among Second-Tier Customers," Target Marketing, 22 (March 1999): 46-49.
63. Hoch et al. (1994), op. cit.
64. See, for example, X. Dreze and D.R. Bell, "Managing Channels Through Scanbacks: A Win-Win Proposition," working paper, Wharton Marketing Department, August 1999.
65. J.R. Lumpkin, B.A. Greenberg, and J.L. Goldstucker, "Marketplace Needs of the Elderly: Determinant Attitudes and Store Choice," Journal of Retailing, 61/2 (Summer 1985): 75-105.
66. J.R. Lumpkin and C.W. McConkey, "Identifying Determinants of Store Choice of Fashion Shoppers," Akron Business and Economic Review, 15/4 (Winter 1984): 30-35.
67. J.F. Dash et al., "Information Search and Store Choice," Journal of Advertising Research, 16/3 (June 1976): 35-40.
68. M. Wilson, "Reinventing Ann Taylor," Chain Store Age Executive, 71/1 (January 1995): 26-28.
69. D. Howell, "Dollar Tree Expands Reach Thru Format, Name Brands," Discount Store News, May 3, 1999, pp. 3, 48; Transportation and Distribution, "Automation Takes Root at Dollar Tree," 40/2 (February 1999): SCF12-SCF18.
70. D. Howell, "Dollar Tree Expands Reach Thru Format, Name Brands," Discount Store News, May 3, 1999, pp. 3, 48; Transportation and Distribution, "Automation Takes Root at Dollar Tree," 40/2 (February 1999): SCF12-SCF18.
71. Marketscan, op. cit.
72. P. Crnkovich, "HBC: A Class of Trade Battleground," Discount Merchandiser, 39/5 (May 1999): 56-57.
73. F. Hammel, "Tomorrow's Dinner: Consumer-Direct's Impact," Progressive Grocer, 76/10 (October 1997): 101-106.
74. L. Liebeck, "Streamline: Delivering the Goods," Discount Store News, May 5, 1997, pp. 54; L. Liebeck, "Netgrocer Now Open for Business," Discount Store News, August 18, 1997, pp. 3, 21.
75. L. Liebeck, "Streamline: Delivering the Goods," Discount Store News, May 5, 1997, pp. 54; L. Liebeck, "Netgrocer Now Open for Business," Discount Store News, August 18, 1997, pp. 3, 21.
76. Ibid.