Internationalization, democracy, and food safety measures: The (Il)legitimacy of consumer preferences?

Global Governance

Volumn 7, Issue 3, 2001, Pages 293-316

  Skogstad, Grace ^a  

^a NONE

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[No Author keywords available]

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EID: 0035615769     PISSN: 10752846     EISSN: None     Source Type: Journal    
DOI: 10.1163/19426720-00703007     Document Type: Review

References (80)

1. David Held, "Democracy and Globalization," Global Governance 3 (1997): 251-267; Held, Democracy and the Global Order (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Anthony McGrew, "Introduction," in McGrew, ed., The Transformation of Democracy? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997).
2. David Held, "Democracy and Globalization," Global Governance 3 (1997): 251-267; Held, Democracy and the Global Order (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Anthony McGrew, "Introduction," in McGrew, ed., The Transformation of Democracy? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997).
3. David Held, "Democracy and Globalization," Global Governance 3 (1997): 251-267; Held, Democracy and the Global Order (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995); Anthony McGrew, "Introduction," in McGrew, ed., The Transformation of Democracy? (Cambridge: Polity Press, 1997).
4. Jan Aart Scholte, "Global Capitalism and the State," International Affairs 73, no. 3 (1997): 427-452.
5. Sanitary measures are those that are designed to protect the health and life of humans and animals from risks arising from pests and disease-carrying organisms and from additives, contaminants, or toxins in foods, beverages, and feedstuffs; phytosanitary measures are designed to protect plants from diseases and pests.
6. As a case in point, the United States Food and Drug Administration, which exercises broad responsibilities with regard to food safety, reports to Congress and through its hearings, advisory committees, and publication of its decisions meets democratic criteria of transparency and public input.
7. Ngaire Woods, "Good Governance in International Organizations," Global Governance 4, no. 5 (1999): 39-61.
8. With regard to nomenclature, the WTO refers to the European Communities, but the more common term European Community is used here to refer to the polity before the 1992 Treaty on the European Union, and the term European Union is used to describe it since then.
9. G. Bruce Doern, Leslie A. Pal, and Brian W. Tomlin, eds., Border Crossings: The Internationalisation of Canadian Public Policy (Toronto: Oxford University Press, 1996), p. 3.
10. A third facet of policymaking, policy implementation, could also be internationalized. There is little likelihood, however, that the example of international bodies like the World Bank and the IMF implementing aid programs and structural adjustment policies in developing countries will be replicated in the area of food safety measures.
11. As defined by Stephen D. Krasner, ed., International Regimes (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1983), p. 2.
12. John H, Jackson, "Designing and Implementing Effective Dispute Settlement Procedures: WTO Dispute Settlement, Appraisal and Prospects," in Anne O. Krueger, ed., The WTO as an International Organization (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998), p. 164.
13. With respect to veterinary drug residues in meat and meat products, the committee of scientists, known as the Joint [FAO/WHO] Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA), reports to a specialist Codex Committee on Residues of Veterinary Drugs in Foods (CCRVDF) on the safety of the evaluated veterinary drugs. The CCRVDF then makes recommendations to the Codex members themselves, the decisionmaking body.
14. Liora Salter, Mandated Science: Science and Scientists in the Making of Standards (Boston: Kluwer, 1988), p. 86, using data collected in the early 1980s, noted that relatively few of the approximately 120 Codex member countries had accepted Codex standards. Further, "approximately 10% of the European Common Market and Codex standards were identical. . . . European Common Market standards have taken precedence over Codex standards for the Common Market countries."
15. Timothy E. Josling, Stefan Tangermann, and T. K. Warley, Agriculture in the GATT (Houndmills, England: Macmillan, 1996), p. 209; Steven J. Rothberg, "From Beef to BST: Circumventing the GATT Standards Code's Prohibition on Unnecessary Obstacles to Trade," Minnesota Law Review 75 (1990): 505-536.
16. Timothy E. Josling, Stefan Tangermann, and T. K. Warley, Agriculture in the GATT (Houndmills, England: Macmillan, 1996), p. 209; Steven J. Rothberg, "From Beef to BST: Circumventing the GATT Standards Code's Prohibition on Unnecessary Obstacles to Trade," Minnesota Law Review 75 (1990): 505-536.
17. Jimmye S. Hillman, "The World Trade Organization: Protectionist Issues After Fifty Years of GATT," Choices, First Quarterly (1997): 43-45; Hillman, "Nontariff Agricultural Trade Barriers," in David Orden and Donna Roberts, eds., Understanding Technical Barriers to Agricultural Trade (St. Paul, Minn.: International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, 1997), pp. 1-32; United States General Accounting Office, Agricultural Exports: U.S. Needs a More Integrated Approach to Address Sanitary/Phytosanitary Issues (Washington, D.C.: GAO, 1997); Jagdish Bhagwati and Robert E. Hudec, eds., Fair Trade and Harmonization: Prerequisites for Free Trade? vol. 1 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
18. Jimmye S. Hillman, "The World Trade Organization: Protectionist Issues After Fifty Years of GATT," Choices, First Quarterly (1997): 43-45; Hillman, "Nontariff Agricultural Trade Barriers," in David Orden and Donna Roberts, eds., Understanding Technical Barriers to Agricultural Trade (St. Paul, Minn.: International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, 1997), pp. 1-32; United States General Accounting Office, Agricultural Exports: U.S. Needs a More Integrated Approach to Address Sanitary/Phytosanitary Issues (Washington, D.C.: GAO, 1997); Jagdish Bhagwati and Robert E. Hudec, eds., Fair Trade and Harmonization: Prerequisites for Free Trade? vol. 1 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
19. Jimmye S. Hillman, "The World Trade Organization: Protectionist Issues After Fifty Years of GATT," Choices, First Quarterly (1997): 43-45; Hillman, "Nontariff Agricultural Trade Barriers," in David Orden and Donna Roberts, eds., Understanding Technical Barriers to Agricultural Trade (St. Paul, Minn.: International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, 1997), pp. 1-32; United States General Accounting Office, Agricultural Exports: U.S. Needs a More Integrated Approach to Address Sanitary/Phytosanitary Issues (Washington, D.C.: GAO, 1997); Jagdish Bhagwati and Robert E. Hudec, eds., Fair Trade and Harmonization: Prerequisites for Free Trade? vol. 1 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
20. Jimmye S. Hillman, "The World Trade Organization: Protectionist Issues After Fifty Years of GATT," Choices, First Quarterly (1997): 43-45; Hillman, "Nontariff Agricultural Trade Barriers," in David Orden and Donna Roberts, eds., Understanding Technical Barriers to Agricultural Trade (St. Paul, Minn.: International Agricultural Trade Research Consortium, 1997), pp. 1-32; United States General Accounting Office, Agricultural Exports: U.S. Needs a More Integrated Approach to Address Sanitary/Phytosanitary Issues (Washington, D.C.: GAO, 1997); Jagdish Bhagwati and Robert E. Hudec, eds., Fair Trade and Harmonization: Prerequisites for Free Trade? vol. 1 (Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996).
21. Country supporters of an SPS Agreement are listed in Gretchen H. Stanton, "Implications of the WTO Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures," in Orden and Roberts, Understanding Technical Barriers to Agricultural Trade.
22. Crescenzo Dell'Aquila, "Regionalism and World Agri-Food Trade: Empirical Evidence and Implications for Regional Integration of Agriculture" (master's thesis, University of Guelph, 1997); Dennis R. Henderson, Ian M. Sheldon, and Daniel H. Pick, "International Commerce in Processed Foods: Patterns and Curiosities," in Daniel H. Pick, Dennis R. Henderson, Jean D. Kinsey, and Ian M. Sheldon, eds., Global Markets for Processed Foods: Theoretical and Practical Issues (Boulder: Westview, 1998), pp. 7-32.
23. Crescenzo Dell'Aquila, "Regionalism and World Agri-Food Trade: Empirical Evidence and Implications for Regional Integration of Agriculture" (master's thesis, University of Guelph, 1997); Dennis R. Henderson, Ian M. Sheldon, and Daniel H. Pick, "International Commerce in Processed Foods: Patterns and Curiosities," in Daniel H. Pick, Dennis R. Henderson, Jean D. Kinsey, and Ian M. Sheldon, eds., Global Markets for Processed Foods: Theoretical and Practical Issues (Boulder: Westview, 1998), pp. 7-32.
24. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
25. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
26. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
27. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
28. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
29. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
30. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
31. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
32. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
33. The preceding account is taken from Agra Europe (15 May 1981, P/4; 10 July 1981, P/10; 24 July 1981, P/5; 12 April 1985, E/3; 19 April 1985, E/3; 1 November 1985, P/1-P/2; 20 December 1985, P/1); David Vogel, Barriers or Benefits: Regulation in Transatlantic Trade (Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 1997), pp. 14-23; Vogel, Trading Up: Consumer and Environmental Regulation in a Global Economy (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1995), chap. 5; Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission [to the WTO panel re beef hormone dispute] - Public Version (Ottawa: Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, 3 December 1996), pars. 43-60.
34. Vogel, Trading Up, p. 169.
35. Vogel, Barriers or Benefits; Vogel, Trading Up, p. 190.
36. Vogel, Barriers or Benefits; Vogel, Trading Up, p. 190.
37. Annex A, SPS Agreement. The agreement also contains provisions that allow countries to take measures to safeguard a territory of a country from the spread of a pest or disease.
38. The following account is based on interviews with WTO and national officials who were involved in the drafting of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. It also draws extensively from draft documents and minutes of the GATT Negotiating Group on Agriculture: Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers. See "Synoptic Table of Proposals Relating to Key Concepts. Note by the Secretariat" (Geneva, 30 April 1990); "Summary of the Main Points Raised at the Seventh Meeting of the Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers" (Geneva, 31 May 1990); "Report by the Chairman to the Negotiating Group on Agriculture" (Geneva, 15 October 1990); as well as Yukyun Shin, "An Analysis of the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Its Implementation in Korea," Journal of World Trade 32, no. 1 (1998): 85-119.
39. The following account is based on interviews with WTO and national officials who were involved in the drafting of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. It also draws extensively from draft documents and minutes of the GATT Negotiating Group on Agriculture: Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers. See "Synoptic Table of Proposals Relating to Key Concepts. Note by the Secretariat" (Geneva, 30 April 1990); "Summary of the Main Points Raised at the Seventh Meeting of the Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers" (Geneva, 31 May 1990); "Report by the Chairman to the Negotiating Group on Agriculture" (Geneva, 15 October 1990); as well as Yukyun Shin, "An Analysis of the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Its Implementation in Korea," Journal of World Trade 32, no. 1 (1998): 85-119.
40. The following account is based on interviews with WTO and national officials who were involved in the drafting of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. It also draws extensively from draft documents and minutes of the GATT Negotiating Group on Agriculture: Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers. See "Synoptic Table of Proposals Relating to Key Concepts. Note by the Secretariat" (Geneva, 30 April 1990); "Summary of the Main Points Raised at the Seventh Meeting of the Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers" (Geneva, 31 May 1990); "Report by the Chairman to the Negotiating Group on Agriculture" (Geneva, 15 October 1990); as well as Yukyun Shin, "An Analysis of the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Its Implementation in Korea," Journal of World Trade 32, no. 1 (1998): 85-119.
41. The following account is based on interviews with WTO and national officials who were involved in the drafting of the Agreement on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. It also draws extensively from draft documents and minutes of the GATT Negotiating Group on Agriculture: Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers. See "Synoptic Table of Proposals Relating to Key Concepts. Note by the Secretariat" (Geneva, 30 April 1990); "Summary of the Main Points Raised at the Seventh Meeting of the Working Group on Sanitary and Phytosanitary Regulations and Barriers" (Geneva, 31 May 1990); "Report by the Chairman to the Negotiating Group on Agriculture" (Geneva, 15 October 1990); as well as Yukyun Shin, "An Analysis of the WTO Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures and Its Implementation in Korea," Journal of World Trade 32, no. 1 (1998): 85-119.
42. Vern R. Walker, "Keeping the WTO from Becoming the 'World Trans-science Organization': Scientific Uncertainty, Science Policy, and Factfinding in the Growth Hormones Dispute," Cornell International Law Journal 31 (1998): 263-267, delineates the various steps involved in risk assessment and risk management.
43. Marsha A. Echols, "Food Safety Regulation in the European Union and the United States: Different Cultures, Different Laws," Columbia Journal of European Law 4 (1998): 541.
44. Vogel, Trading Up, p. 189. Besides the Codex Alimentarius Commission, two other bodies are named in the SPS Agreement as responsible for establishing international SPS standards, guidelines, and recommendations: the International Office of Epizootics, which is entrusted with responsibility for health issues to avoid the spread of animal diseases; and the International Plant Protection Convention, mandated to develop international phytosanitary standards.
45. Judith Goldstein, "International Institutions and Domestic Politics: GATT, WTO, and the Liberalization of International Trade," in Krueger, The WTO as an International Organization, pp. 133-152.
46. A consensus against a WTO panel report in the WTO Council of its full membership - 135 members - will prevent its automatic adoption.
47. The SPS preamble states that members desire "to further the use of harmonized sanitary and phytosanitary measures between Members." Article 3(1) is even more explicit, stating that to achieve harmonization "on as wide a basis as possible," WTO members "shall" base their SPS measures "on international standards, guidelines or recommendations, where they exist." David Leebron observes that the Agreement on SPS Measures and that on Trade in Services incorporated harmonization "as a norm of international economic relations" for the first time. See Leebron, "Lying Down with Procrustes: An Analysis of Harmonization Claims," in Bhagwati and Hudec, Fair Trade and Harmonization, p. 41.
48. World Trade Organization, EC Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products (Hormones): Report of the Appellate Body (Geneva, 16 January 1998), pars. 177, 208.
49. Government of Canada, Canada's First Written Submission, pars. 8.75, 8.76 (emphasis in original).
50. The Codex Committee standards include acceptable daily intakes (ADIs) for certain kinds of chemicals in food and maximum residue limits (MRLs) for certain kinds of residues in foods. As Walker explains, a WTO member could base its SPS measure on Codex standards without conforming to these standards by adopting the ADI but adjusting the MRL. See Walker, "Keeping the WTO from Becoming the 'World Trans-science Organization'," p. 274.
51. World Trade Organization, EC Measures Concerning Meat and Meat Products, par. 165 (emphasis in original).
52. Ibid., par. 165.
53. Ibid., par. 172.
54. Ibid., par. 173.
55. Ibid., par. 187.
56. Ibid.
57. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Review of the Statements of Principle on the Role of Science and the Extent to Which Other Factors Are Taken into Account: Role of Science and Other Factors in Relation to Risk Analysis (Rome: Codex Committee on General Principles, Fourteenth Session, 19-23 April 1999), par. 9.
58. EU officials have cited concerns about a consumer backlash and a beef boycott that would undermine its own beef industry as its reasons for opting to compensate its trading partners rather than allow imports of hormone-fed beef. At the time of the arbitrators' report, in the spring of 1999, the EU had obtained one risk assessment whose results supported the claim of carcinogenity of some of the hormones in question.
59. The United States did not want hormone-fed beef labeled as such, since such a label would imply that it was distinguishable from nonhormone-fed beef in terms of its health effects, something they patently disagreed with. The EU believed that were it to agree to labeling, it would be indirectly condoning a product that it believed was unsafe.
60. Hillman, "Nontariff Agricultural Trade Barriers."
61. The quote is Salter's, Mandated Science, p. 206. See also Kathryn Harrison and George Hoberg, Risk, Science, and Politics (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), p. 7.
62. The quote is Salter's, Mandated Science, p. 206. See also Kathryn Harrison and George Hoberg, Risk, Science, and Politics (Montreal and Kingston: McGill-Queen's University Press, 1994), p. 7.
63. Walker, "Keeping the WTO from Becoming the 'World Trans-science Organization'"; Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986).
64. Walker, "Keeping the WTO from Becoming the 'World Trans-science Organization'"; Sheila Jasanoff, Risk Management and Political Culture (New York: Russell Sage Foundation, 1986).
65. Salter, Mandated Science, pp. 94-95.
66. Codex Alimentarius Commission, Proposed Draft Principles Concerning the Participation of International Non-Governmental Organizations in the Work of the Codex Alimentarius Commission (Rome, 24 March 1998).
67. Gabrielle Marceau and Peter N. Pedersen, "Is the WTO Open and Transparent?" Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (1999): 5-49. In Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, 15 May 1998 (Kluwer Academic Publishers), an environmental organization's position was put forth as part of the U.S. government's submission.
68. Gabrielle Marceau and Peter N. Pedersen, "Is the WTO Open and Transparent?" Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (1999): 5-49. In Import Prohibition of Certain Shrimp and Shrimp Products, 15 May 1998 (Kluwer Academic Publishers), an environmental organization's position was put forth as part of the U.S. government's submission.
69. Jan Aart Scholte with Robert O'Brien and Marc Williams, "The WTO and Civil Society," Journal of World Trade 33, no. 1 (1999): 107-123.
70. Salter, Mandated Science, pp. 71-75; Leebron, "Lying Down with Procrustes," note 79.
71. Salter, Mandated Science, pp. 71-75; Leebron, "Lying Down with Procrustes," note 79.
72. Mark A. Pollack, "Representing Diffuse Interests in EC Policy-Making," Journal of European Public Policy 4, no. 4 (1997): 572-590.
73. Woods, "Good Governance in International Organizations," p. 45.
74. Echols, "Food Safety Regulation in the European Union and the United States."
75. Ibid., p. 530.
76. "ADM/GMO Crops: Says Consumers Demand Unaltered Food," Dow Jones Wire Service, Chicago, 1 September 1999; "Heinz Moves Quickly to Reassure It's [sic] GM Free Status," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 27 August 1999.
77. "ADM/GMO Crops: Says Consumers Demand Unaltered Food," Dow Jones Wire Service, Chicago, 1 September 1999; "Heinz Moves Quickly to Reassure It's [sic] GM Free Status," Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, 27 August 1999.
78. Aaron Cosbey and Stas Burgiel, The Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety: An Analysis of Results (Winnipeg: International Institute for Sustainable Development, 2000), online at http://iisd.ca/trade.
79. Goldstein, "International Institutions and Domestic Politics," p. 158. See also Jean Baneth, "Comment on the Paper by Judith Goldstein," in Krueger, The WTO as an International Organization.
80. Goldstein, "International Institutions and Domestic Politics," p. 158. See also Jean Baneth, "Comment on the Paper by Judith Goldstein," in Krueger, The WTO as an International Organization.